Explanation of terms in decentralized communication

1. Special topics on core theoretical knowledge of communication science

Special Topics on core theoretical knowledge of Communication Science (4)
differences between empirical school and critical school comparison of American traditional school and European critical school
research purposes
① maintain the current social system communication system
② serve for the full realization of political, economic and military functions of mass media
③ practicability The experience is obvious< From the perspective of philosophy and sociology, this paper discusses the relationship between communication and the elements of social structure
2. Change the existing social change by using the research on the current communication situation
research focus
① about how to spread, how to effectively spread and so on< (2) to seek the rules of communication activities; (3) to focus on the communication effect and audience (micro); (4) to serve the practice more directly and effectively; (3) to care about the communication for whom; (3) to study the communication system, Communicators and the relationship between communication and the elements of social structure (macro)
③ in the sense of communication, the research methods mainly use sociology, psychology, etc., emphasizing quantitative analysis, focusing on empirical experience, and the micro research methods mainly use philosophy, sociology, political economy, cultural research, etc., emphasizing qualitative analysis, not excluding quantitative analysis, focusing on speculation, empirical research, etc Capitalism is a pluralistic society, and social contradictions can be eliminated as long as the coordination and balance of pluralistic interests are realized. It is unreasonable to think that the media can help improve social problems. The capitalist system and the communication system themselves are not reasonable. The essence of mass media is a tool for the minority to monopolize the ideology of the bourgeoisie to rule the majority, It is necessary to criticize the four pioneers and schramharold; Lasswell Kurt & Chen 8226; Loin Paul; Lazarus fieldkar & Chen 8226; Huffland Wilbur & Chen 8226; Schramm
(1) Harold; Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902-1980) is a famous American politician and one of the founders of communication studies. His contribution to communication studies focuses on Propaganda Analysis and communication process research. In 1927, his doctoral dissertation propaganda skills in the world war was published and became a classic work of propaganda. In 1948, he published "the structure and function of communication in society", which is a more comprehensive exposition of the process, structure and function of communication, and has become one of the classic achievements of early communication research. The article clearly puts forward five basic elements of the communication process, namely, who spreads, what to spread, through what channels, to whom and what effect to spread, Later generations call it & quot; Lasswell formula & quot;. In short, his achievements in the field of propaganda analysis are enormous, and his influence on the analysis of the internal structure and external function of communication is far-reaching. These pioneering studies have laid the basic scope and level of communication research 2) Kurt & Chen 8226; Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)
American German social psychologist, in Psychology & quot; Field theory & quot; And & quot; Group dynamics theory & quot; He was the first proposer of the group dynamics research center and founded the group dynamics research center. Group dynamics mainly studies the relationship between groups and indivials, especially the restriction and influence of group norms on indivial behavior. It can be concluded from the research that the relationship between indivials and groups is so close that the norms of groups can directly restrict and influence indivial behavior. In World War II, he applied this theory to the study of military morale, and also concted the study of persuading people to change their eating habits. Lewin's theory of group dynamics not only promotes the establishment of American communication studies, but also provides a new level and method for communication studies. Another important contribution of Lu Yin to communication studies is to put forward the concept of information communication; Gatekeeper & quot; Concept, & quot; Check & quot; Theory has become an important theory to reveal the internal control mechanism in the process of news or information dissemination
(3) Paul; Paul f. Lazarsfeld (1901-1976) is an Austrian American sociologist. It is the first time to apply the social survey method to audience research systematically. Based on its contribution to the research method, it is called the "quot" of communication research; Tool maker & quot The contribution of toolmaker to communication research methods lies in scientific research methods such as statistical survey, sampling analysis and data collation. He and Katz published a milestone in the history of communication studies in "people's choice" after their research on the influencing factors of voter voting in Ili; The predisposition hypothesis& quot; Selective contact & quot; Hypothesis, & quot; Opinions must be sleeve & quot; And & quot; Two level communication & quot; And so on; Bullet Theory & quot; The era of theory dominating communication research has entered & quot; Limited effect theory & quot; It's a new era. The two-level communication theory, on the one hand, makes researchers deeply understand the multiple factors in the process of communication, on the other hand, promotes the study of communication, especially the study of communication process; Multi level communication theory & quot
(4) Carl & Chen 8226; Carl Hovland (1921-1961)
an experimental psychologist, he devoted his life to the study of the influence of human psychology on human behavior, and specifically studied the relationship between persuasion and attitude, the change of attitude and formation, the way of persuasion, skills and abilities, etc. It focuses on the relationship between attitude and persuasion. For example, ring World War II, it mainly studied the influence of military ecation films made by the Army Department on soldiers. His contributions to communication are as follows: first, he introced psychological experimental methods into the field of communication, which greatly expanded the field of communication research; second, he concted a large number of experimental investigations from the credibility of information sources, communication skills, audience attributes and other factors that affect the persuasion effect, revealing the conditionality and complexity of the formation of communication effect, which provides a basis for denying the early & quot; Bullet Theory & quot; The concept of effect provides an important basis
(5) Wilbur; Wilbur Schramm (1907-1988) is the first communication scientist in human history, the founder of communication discipline, known as & quot; The originator of communication & quot& quot; The father of communication & quot;. His great contribution to communication science lies in: first of all, integrating American journalism with sociology, psychology, politics and other disciplines, summarizing and revising on the basis of previous studies, making it systematic and structured, and establishing communication science, which is his greatest achievement. In 1949, his first authoritative work mass communication was published, marking the establishment of communication. Secondly, we should continue to write books to promote the expansion of communication, mainly including mass communication, communication process and effect, and four theories of newspapers and periodicals. Thirdly, we should vigorously promote the ecation of communication, expand the influence of communication in ecation and academic circles, cultivate many famous scholars, and form & quot; Schramm School & quot 5) Walter Lippmann (1889-1962): a famous American political scientist and journalist. In his works such as freedom and the press and public opinion, Lipman not only makes a profound analysis of the nature of news and its selection process, but also puts forward two important concepts: & quot; Pseudo Environment & quot; And & quot; Stereotype & quot;. Lippman emphasizes the power of mass communication, and thinks that mass communication is not only the power of mass communication; Pseudo Environment & quot; It can be said that Lippmann is one of the scholars who discussed the macro social effect of mass communication earlier& quot; Pseudo Environment & quot The so-called & quot; Pseudo Environment & quot; That is to say, information environment is not display environment; Mirror & quot; It is the environment in which the media select and process the symbolic time or information, and then re structure it. People usually don't realize this, but the information environment (Pseudo Environment) formed by mass communication not only restricts people's cognition and behavior, but also influences the objective reality environment by restricting people's cognition and behavior& quot; Stereotype & quot Stereotype, the so-called & quot; Stereotype & quot; It refers to people's fixed and simplified ideas and impressions of a specific thing, which is accompanied by the value evaluation and likes and dislikes of the thing. Stereotype can provide a simple reference standard for people to understand things, but it also hinders the acceptance of new things, so it plays a role of social control< McLuhan's media theory
(1) media is the extension of human body
(2) media is information
(3) hot media and cold media
(4) global village
(5) overall evaluation of McLuhan's media theory
(1) media is the extension of human body Content media is the extension and expansion of human sensory ability: print media is the extension of visual ability, radio is the extension of auditory ability, television is the extension of visual, auditory and tactile ability. 2. Evaluation (1) this viewpoint is proposed to explain the influence of media on human sensory center. He thinks that the development history of media and society is also the development of human sensory ability; Integration differentiation re integration; The history of China 2) McLuhan's & quot; Media is the extension of human being; However, it is not the conclusion of rigorous scientific investigation, but based on & quot; Insight & quot; A speculative inference on the basis of the theory 2 Media is information. 1. Content media itself is the real information. That is to say, only when human beings have a certain kind of media can they engage in corresponding communication or other social activities. Therefore, the real meaningful information is not the communication content of each era, but the nature of the communication tools used in this era, as well as the possibilities and social consequences it brings. 2. Evaluation significance: (1) this is McLuhan's highly summary of the status and role of media technology in the development of human society 2) It emphasizes that the media is the driving force of social development, and it is also the mark defect of distinguishing different social forms: (1) regarding the media technology as the only driving force of social development - extreme; (2) ignoring the subjective initiative of people and the restriction of social system on it - one sidedness, because the media is created by people, how people use and control the media, and the social possession structure of the media, What is the ownership relationship, in turn, determines the characteristics and nature of media activities< (3) hot medium and cold medium 1. Meaning (1) hot medium: the information transmitted is clear and clear, and the receiver can understand it without mobilizing more sensory and thinking activities; Hot & quot;, Such as photos, radio, movies, etc. The degree of audience participation is low. (2) cold media: the information provided to the audience is vague and insufficient, which needs to be supplemented and associated by the audience, and the degree of audience participation is high, such as comics, television, telephone, etc. 2. The evaluation of McLuhan's proposition that media should be divided in this way is to illustrate the importance of correctly using it and give people enlightenment. All kinds of media act on people in different ways, resulting in different psychological and behavioral reactions

2. 1. Communication

communication is a social and common behavior and activity of human information exchange

2. Self communication

internal communication or people's inward communication is everyone's own self information communication< In a narrow sense, it refers to face-to-face information exchange between indivials. The broad sense includes group communication and organization communication

4. Group communication

refers to the information exchange activities carried out by people within the group< Organizational communication is an organized, leading, planned and large-scale information exchange activity<

6. Mass communication

refers to the information communication activities carried out by communication organizations to an extremely wide range of audiences through modern media such as newspapers, radio, television, movies, magazines, books, etc. The mass refers to a wide range of audiences who do not know each other< Communication studies are the study of the occurrence and development of all human communication behaviors and processes, as well as the relationship between communication and people and society

8. Communication process

refers to the structure and elements of communication phenomenon and the relationship between each other< The main points are as follows: 1) communication is a dynamic process with no beginning, no end and no boundary; ② The process of communication is a complex structure, in which multiple relations should be taken as the basic unit of research; ③ The essence of communication process is change, that is, the mutual influence and change of various relations. He proposed s-m-c-r (information source information channel receiver) communication process model, emphasizing the importance and scientificity of process research

9. The main achievements of process research are model

linear model, cybernetic model and social system model. Lasswell divides the communication process into the transmitter, the receiver, the information, the media and the effect, namely 5W mode. R. Braddock added context and motivation to turn it into 7W mode. There are three basic models in communication: linear model, cybernetic model and social system model< Lasswell mode (5W in the process of communication)

Lasswell divides the process of communication into communicator, receiver, information, media and effect, namely 5W mode< In the model of Shennong weaver, the medium is divided into three types, and the message is divided into sent and received, which increases the factor of noise

12. The traditional linear model is represented by Lasswell and Shennong Weaver models. Communication is described as a linear and unidirectional process. It ignores the restriction of feedback and social process on communication process

13. Cybernetics mode

communication process mode with cybernetics as the guiding ideology. The feedback mechanism is introced to change the one-way linearity into the two-way circulation

14. Feedback

the response of the receiver to the received information in the process of communication

15. Communication unit

every communication participant, no matter an indivial or a group, can be regarded as a communication unit, with both the identity of communicator and receiver

16. Coding and decoding (or decoding)

coding: the process of cognition and expression, that is, to turn the meaning seen, heard and thought into a symbol. Decoding: the process of expression and understanding is to restore symbols to meanings

17. Basic group

also known as the primary masses, the first group, refers to the family, neighborhood, close partners, etc

18. Reference group

a group in which indivials may not be involved, but with which they establish or change their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors

19. Maletsk's communication mode

the four elements of communication structure have not changed, but the complex interactive relationship between each element has been outlined, and the relationship between society and communication has expanded

in terms of disseminators, journalists and editors have the initiative, and in turn bear the pressure of information and media. There are three levels of constraints and influences: personal level, organizational level and social level

on the part of the receiver, corresponding to the communicator, we can not choose the content of a large amount of information, and the receiver is also under the pressure of the media. Feeling and effect are two-way interactive process. The message acts on the receiver and the receiver reacts on the message. Like the transmitter, the receiver also has complex background: personal level, organizational level and social level

20. Inction

based on data, organize the actual relationship reflected by data as the theoretical principle

21. Dection

starting from the theoretical explanation, we seek data to test the theoretical prediction.

3. Art school refers to the art group or school formed consciously or unconsciously by artists who have basically the same or similar ideological tendency, artistic opinion, creative style and aesthetic taste in a certain historical period of art development. Art school is the proct of art development. The emergence of different art schools and the competition and struggle between them. It is an important condition to promote the development and prosperity of art

art trend of thought refers to the development of social life (especially the development of economic change and political struggle) and art itself in a certain historical period and a certain region. In the field of art, the formation of a wide range of artistic ideas and artistic creation trend. It is one of the components of social thoughts. Generally speaking, art trend of thought is an ideological trend of developing art and influencing art history, which is initiated and promoted by artists and theorists with different tendencies, styles and schools. However, in a certain period of history or a certain stage of the emergence of art trends of thought, the specific performance is generally the same trend, style, School of artists launched

Baroque art Baroque is a popular artistic style in the 17th century. Its name has different origins. One comes from Portugal or Spanish, which means not round bead; On the other hand, it comes from Italian and has strange, strange or wrong meaning. Generally speaking, the name was derogatory at that time, and it was the title of an artistic style of the last century given by the 18th century classical art theorists. The classicists think that Baroque is a degenerate and disintegrated art. Only later did they have a fair evaluation of Baroque art. Baroque art came into being in the second half of the 16th century. It flourished in the 17th century. In the 18th century, it graally declined except in northern and central Europe. Baldwin art was first proced in Italy. It is undoubtedly related to anti religious reform. Rome was the center of church power at that time, so it is not surprising that it rose in Rome. It can be said that although Baldwin art was not invented by religion, it served and was used by religion, and the church was its most powerful pillar. In the 17th century, European powers expanded, plundered overseas colonies, accumulated huge wealth, and advocated luxury in life. Therefore, they also demanded luxury, vividness and enthusiasm in architecture, music and art. There was a power struggle between the old and the new in Europe in the 17th century. The old religious forces suppressed the believers with violence, and then actively used the artistic ideology Baroque to confuse and conquer the people. Baroque art does not exclude the sense joy of heresy, but is also faithful to the Christian world outlook, so it is also a "Christian Renaissance".

4.

Projective interpretation

classical psychoanalytic theory

projection is that an indivial imposes his own fault or desire not recognized by the society on others (also known as denial projection), which occurs in the subconscious. Psychological projection is a kind of psychological defense mechanism, which is used to rece the pressure of anxiety and defend self to maintain internal personality

developmental psychology of children

children in the egocentric period often think that the feelings of others are the same as themselves, that is, assimilation projection. People with poor transition in the egocentric period often have assimilation projection. Assimilation projection may be proced in the subconscious level or in the conscious level

similar assimilation projection phenomenon also occurs in alts, which is the opposite of empathy and compassion. People do not understand and speculate that others have empathy with themselves from the perspective of others, but from their own perspective

analytical psychology

projection is an invisible thing that exists in people themselves. They look for something similar to them in the external reality, and then they project themselves into the appropriate attraction. Projection is not carried out consciously and initiatively. The initiator of projection is autonomous unconscious psychological content, which has the autonomous function of spontaneously reflecting itself and entering consciousness

The function of projection plays the role of subconscious expression. Through this way, the subconscious makes our mind communicate and provides a "container" for the integration of opposites

extended data

projection effect is that in the process of interpersonal cognition, people often assume that others and themselves have the same attributes, hobbies, emotions, tendencies, etc., and often think that others naturally know what they think. As a matter of fact, it is also a manifestation of psychological stereotype, which takes the evaluation of people's own psychological characteristics as the preparation and the standard of recognizing others. Generally speaking, the projection effect mainly occurs in the following two situations:

1, the other party's age, occupation, social status, identity, gender and so on are the same as their own. People always believe that "birds of a feather flock together, people flock together". They think that people in the same group always have some common characteristics. Therefore, when recognizing and evaluating people who belong to the same group with themselves, people often project their own characteristics to others instead of judging from the information they get from their own observation

in addition, people always like to evaluate people who have some of the same characteristics as themselves, and they are always used to comparing with these people. However, people do not want to always lose and be at a disadvantage in the comparison, and the projection function just plays a protective role here. If they project their own characteristics to others, they will be the same as others, and there is no difference between them, He is good, others are not good

2. When people find that they have some bad characteristics, in order to seek psychological balance, they will project their unacceptable personality characteristics on others and think that others also have these bad habits or ideas. The idiom "fifty steps laugh at one hundred steps" is an example of this. I feel embarrassed when I escape. It's a sign of cowardice. I feel very uncomfortable. When I suddenly find that others are running further than myself, I laugh at them to ease my uneasiness

at this time, projection is also a self-protection measure, which can ensure the peace of mind, but often affect their own correct judgment of people and things. At this time, people prefer to project their own bad characteristics on the people they respect or are much better than themselves. In this way, the anxiety will be greatly reced

5.

schema

the so-called schema is the network of knowledge and experience in human brain. In addition, schema also represents the cognitive structure of specific concepts, things or events, which affects the processing of related information. It also refers to the occurrence of pattern or form in biological morphology, or schema, pattern recognition and system in computational science, and also involves fractal or topological geometry

concept

the so-called schema is the network of knowledge and experience in the human brain. The basis of social perception is the attribute of the object itself, but the subjective factors of the cognitive will also have an important impact on the process and result of social perception. This includes cognitive experience, cognitive motivation and interest, cognitive emotion. Among them, the cognition of the same object will have different results if the indivial's past experience is different. Modern social psychology uses the concept of "schema" to explain this phenomenon. In social perception, schema can guide and combine newly perceived information.

definition

cognitive theory defines schema as the basic structural unit of understanding cognition from psychology

Mandel, Friedrich and Ron define schema as a cognitive structure that represents general knowledge in memory. Schema (or framework and script) is understood as a data structure, which plays a central role in explaining perception, regulating behavior and storing knowledge in memory

In the view of ramalhardt, Smolensky, McClellan and Hinton, any representation object in the mind is not a pattern. More precisely, schema appears when new knowledge is assimilated into the existing knowledge structure, or when a given environment needs to be explained from many simpler elements of collaborative work

In Piaget's cognitive development theory, schema refers to an organized and repeatable behavior pattern or psychological structure, which is a unit of cognitive structure. All the schema pairs of a person constitute a person's cognitive structure

The concept of schema was first put forward by Kant, which plays an important role in Kant's epistemology. He regards schema as a kind of technology and skill "hidden in the depths of human mind". Therefore, in Kant's view, schema is a transcendental category. Piaget, a well-known contemporary Swiss psychologist, gives the concept of schema a new meaning through experimental research, which has become the core concept of his cognitive development theory. In Piaget's view, schema is a dynamic and changeable cognitive structure within the subject. He opposed the behaviorist s → r formula and put forward the formula of s → (at) → R, that is, a certain stimulus (s) is assimilated by the indivial (a) into the cognitive structure (T) before it can react (R). The reason why an indivial can respond to various stimuli in one way or another is that he has a certain schema that can assimilate these stimuli. This kind of schema plays an irreplaceable role in the process of cognition, that is, it can filter, screen and sort out external stimuli, and make them become an organized and holistic cognition, so as to establish a new schema. Piaget believes that although the schema originally comes from congenital inheritance, once it contacts with the outside world, in the process of adapting to the environment, the schema is constantly changing, enriching and developing, and will never stay at the same level. He uses four basic concepts of schema, assimilation, adaptation and balance to explain the activity process of indivial cognitive structure, forming his own characteristic construction theory. According to Piaget's theory, children's psychological structure or cognitive structure is formed and developed in the process of constant adaptation to the environment and dynamic balance. Therefore, he put forward that the interaction of subject and object is the source of cognitive structure. It is very necessary and indispensable for children to get full activity opportunities for their cognitive development

The information related to schema is often at the center of attention. The choice of cognitive object, cognitive, may not be able to notice

affect memory

what an indivial remembers in social perception is often something that is meaningful to him or that he knew before

affect self perception

indivials will process information about themselves according to the existing self schema. Self schema is an indivial's general understanding of himself based on his past experience

When an indivial perceives others, he often sees what he wants to see, that is, he tends to interpret the perceptual object with schema

classification of schemata

Personal schemata

Personal schemata refers to our cognitive structure of a particular indivial. For example, we have a personal schema for Mao Zedong, which includes courage, self-confidence, perseverance and so on

self schema

self schema refers to people's cognitive structure of themselves, which is closely related to self-concept. For example, you may think you are smart, compassionate, and helpful, which are the contents of your self schema

group schema

refers to our cognitive structure of a particular group, sometimes called group stereotype. Group schema enables us to attribute certain traits to the members of a particular group. For example, we often think that Shandong people are hardworking and honest according to the stereotype; I think Americans are optimistic and helpful

role schema

role schema refers to people's organized cognitive structure for special roles (such as professors), such as people often think that professors are knowledgeable and silver haired

event schema

event schema refers to the cognitive representation of people's general expectation of what will happen in the social situation, which is the psychological classification of social events. For example, we have the schema of going to a restaurant for dinner, the schema of interviewing, the schema of behavior in the classroom, the schema of having a party, the schema of going to the cinema and so on

script

script refers to people's schema of events or sequence of events, especially a series of behaviors with standard process in a period of time. For example, the event of dining in a restaurant is in line with a script. When to order and when to pay is a script

6. 1. Communication: communication is a social and common behavior and activity of human information exchange
2. Self communication: internal communication or people's inward communication is everyone's own self information communication
3. Interpersonal communication: in a narrow sense, it refers to face-to-face information exchange between indivials. The broad sense includes group communication and organization communication
4. Group communication: group communication refers to the information exchange activities carried out by people within the scope of "group"
5. Organizational communication: an organized, leading, planned and large-scale information exchange activity
welcome to www. * *
6. Mass communication refers to the information communication activities carried out by communication organizations to a wide range of audiences through modern media such as newspapers, radio, television, movies, magazines, books, etc“ "The masses" refers to a wide range of audiences who do not know each other
7. Communication studies is the study of the occurrence and development of all human communication behaviors and processes, as well as the relationship between communication and people and society
8. Communication process: the structure and elements of communication phenomenon and the relationship between each other. David, American scholar; Borough thoroughly analyzed the process of communication, and the main points are as follows: 1) communication is a dynamic process, with no beginning and no end and no boundary; ② The process of communication is a complex structure, in which multiple relations should be taken as the basic unit of research; ③ The essence of communication process is change, that is, the mutual influence and change of various relations. He put forward the "s-m-c-r" (information source information channel receiver) communication process model, emphasizing the importance and scientificity of "process research"
9. The main achievements of "process research" are models: linear model, cybernetic model and social system model. Lasswell divided the communication process into the transmitter, the receiver, the information, the media and the effect, namely 5W mode. R. Braddock added context and motivation to turn it into 7W mode. There are three basic models in communication: linear model, cybernetic model and social system model
10. Lasswell model (5W in the process of communication): Lasswell divides the process of communication into communicator, receiver, information, media and effect, namely 5W model
11. Shennong Weaver model: one of the linear models, which divides the media into three types, and divides the messages into sent and received, thus increasing the factor of noise
12. Traditional linear model: represented by Lasswell and Shennong Weaver model, communication is described as a linear and unidirectional process. It ignores the restriction of feedback and social process on communication process
13. Cybernetics mode: a communication process mode guided by cybernetics. Changing "one-way linearity" to "two-way circulation", the "feedback" mechanism is introced
14. Feedback: the response of the receiver to the received information in the process of communication
15. "Communication unit": every participant, whether an indivial or a group, can be regarded as a "communication unit", which has both the identity of communicator and receiver
16. Coding and decoding (or decoding): coding: the process of cognition and expression, that is, turning the meaning seen, heard and thought into symbols. Decoding: the process of expression and understanding is to restore symbols to meanings
17. Basic group: also known as primary masses and primary group, it refers to family, neighborhood, intimate partner, etc
18. Reference group: a group in which indivials may not be involved, but use it as a frame of reference to establish or change their beliefs, attitudes and behaviors
19. Maletsk's communication mode: the four elements of the communication structure have not changed, but the complex interactive relationship between each element has been outlined, and the relationship between society and communication has expanded
in terms of communicators, journalists and editors have the initiative, which in turn bears the pressure of "information" and the pressure of the media. There are three levels of constraints and influences: personal level, organizational level and social level
on the part of the receiver, corresponding to the communicator, there is no way to "select the content" of a large amount of information, and the receiver is also subject to "media pressure"“ "Feeling and effect" is a two-way interactive process. The message acts on the receiver and the receiver reacts on the message. Like the transmitter, the receiver also has complex background: personal level, organizational level and social level
20. Inction: Based on data, organize the actual relationship reflected by data as the theoretical principle
21. Dection: starting from theoretical explanation, seek data to test theoretical prediction
22. Sampling survey: it is a survey method to select a part of the units from all the units of the research object for investigation and analysis, and use the quantitative characteristics of these units to infer the quantitative characteristics of the population
23. The difference between random sampling and non random sampling
random sampling: a sampling form in which all indivials in a population have the same chance of being selected
non random sampling: the purpose of the survey is only to make a preliminary exploration of the problem, obtain research clues and put forward hypotheses, rather than to infer the population from the sample.

7. The purpose of macroeconomics is to study why the economy of some countries fluctuates periodically from high to low, resulting in different degrees of unemployment; Why do some countries have serious inflation in a certain period of time, leading to large fluctuations in nominal interest rates and exchange rates; Why do some countries have rapid economic growth while others have slow economic development, even stagnation and retrogression. The above problems are the problems in the change of national income. The causes, consequences and Countermeasures of these problems are the contents of macroeconomics
the macroeconomic performance of any country can be measured by some indicators, just as a person's health can be measured by body temperature, blood pressure and other indicators. National income and its growth rate, unemployment rate, price level and their changes are important indicators to measure the operation of macro economy. National income is a broad concept to measure the achievement of social and economic activities in economics. It actually includes the following total amounts: GDP, net domestic proct, gross national proct, net national proct, national income (narrow sense), personal income and personal disposable income, which will be discussed in the following sections of this chapter. The economic growth rate of any country refers to the growth rate of national income, especially the growth rate of gross domestic proct (GDP). Unemployment rate is another most important economic indicator to measure the operation of macro-economy, because the employment situation is closely related to residents' welfare, social stability and even the whole social politics and economy
price level refers to the general price level, which is generally expressed by price index. The price index includes consumer price index (CPI) and inflation rate, which not only have an impact on Residents' life and enterprise proction, but also have an impact on the whole social and economic operation. The high inflation rate also indicates that there are problems in the operation of macro economy
in addition to the above-mentioned important macroeconomic indicators, other important indicators include government budget deficit, changes in trade deficit and surplus, changes in interest rate and exchange rate, etc. Whether there is internal relationship between these variables, whether the change of one variable will cause the change of another variable, and to what extent they are related to each other, all belong to the problems of macroeconomic research. Generally speaking, if microeconomics is price centered, it can be called price theory, while macroeconomics is national income centered, it can be called income theory.

8. Generally speaking, all the novels that explicitly contact with a certain social reality or life phenomenon, consciously ask questions or even try to answer questions can be called "problem novels". Like the problem play, it is a literary phenomenon that began to appear ring the May 4th movement. At that time, against the background of the spread of the two major trends of thought of democracy and socialism, it formed the enlightenment proposition that literature must contact with real life problems. The "problem novels" in the period of the May 4th movement mainly express and think about "some general problems about life", the core of which is the purpose, significance and value of life. Closely related to this are social problems such as freedom of personality, love and marriage, ethics and morality, women's Liberation, and some other works involve the suffering of the working people
the disaster brought by the Warlord's scuffle, as well as children's problems, ecation problems, labor problems and so on
Bing Xin: the representative writer of problem novels

9. Biological disciplines that study biological functional activities include organ and system level, cell and molecular level, and whole level physiological activities, as well as experimental physiology, molecular physiology, and system physiology. Physiology is a branch of biological science, which takes the life activity phenomenon and the function of each part of the body as the research object. Physiology is a branch of biology which studies the normal life activities of living organisms. Living organisms range from the simplest microorganisms to the most complex human body.

10. 1. Internal environment: cell survival environment composed of extracellular fluid. The environment in which cells directly contact is called internal environment. Extracellular fluid mainly includes plasma and tissue fluid< Homeostasis: refers to the relatively constant state of the physical and chemical properties of the internal environment, such as temperature, pH, osmotic pressure and various liquid components
3. Negative feedback: in the feedback control system, the effect of feedback signal is to change the activity of the controlled part in the opposite direction of its original activity, which is called negative feedback
4. Positive feedback: in the feedback control system, if the feedback signal can strengthen the activities of the control part, it is called positive feedback
5. Feed forward: feedforward means that before the controlled part receives the instructions from the control part, the control system sends feedforward signals to the controlled part through another shortcut to make its activities more accurate, forward-looking and predictable
6. Autoregulation: when the internal and external environment changes, tissue cells do not depend on external neural or humoral factors, and the adaptive response is called autoregulation
7. Simple diffusion: the transport process of fat soluble substances from the high concentration side of the membrane to the low concentration side is called simple diffusion, which belongs to a simple physical diffusion. The transport substances include O2, N2, CO2, ethanol, urea, etc
8. Facilitated diffusion: the transmembrane diffusion of substances from high concentration side to low concentration side with the help of protein on cell membrane is called facilitated diffusion
9. Primary active transport: primary active transport is a special pump protein with ATPase activity on the cell membrane or intima, which directly hydrolyzes ATP to provide energy and transport one or more substances across the membrane against their respective concentration gradient or electrochemical gradient. It is the most important material transport mode of human body
10. Secondary active transport: indirect use of the concentration difference or potential difference of the energy released by primary active transport to decompose ATP, and the process of substance reverse potential gradient or concentration gradient for transmembrane active transport is called secondary active transport
11. Symporter: symporter refers to the process that transporter transports two or more ions or molecules in the same direction at the same time, which belongs to secondary active transport
12. Chemically gated channel: chemical gated channel is a channel controlled by chemical substances, such as the N2 type ACh receptor on the end plate membrane of skeletal muscle
13. Voltage gated channel: voltage gated channel is an ion channel whose switch is controlled by the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane, such as Na + channel, K + channel, etc
14. Mechanically gated channel: mechanically gated channel refers to the channel like structure that can sense mechanical stimulation and cause changes in cell function, such as the auditory hair on the top of inner ear hair cells
15. Excitability: the ability of excitable cells to proce action potentials when stimulated is called excitability
16. Threshold intensity: the minimum stimulation intensity that can cause tissue excitation is measured by fixing the stimulation ration, which is called threshold intensity. It is an important index to measure the level of organizational excitability
17. Threshold potential: the critical membrane potential that can ince action potential is called threshold potential
18. Resting potential (RP): resting potential refers to the potential difference between the inside and outside of the cell membrane when the cell is not stimulated
19. Action potential (AP): on the basis of resting potential, when a cell is stimulated appropriately, the membrane potential fluctuates rapidly and transiently, which is called action potential
20 electrotonic potential: the electrical characteristics of cell membrane are equivalent to the resistance capacitance coupling circuit in parallel. The transmembrane current graally attenuates with the increase of the distance from the origin, and the membrane potential also graally attenuates, forming a regular membrane potential distribution. This membrane potential whose spatial distribution is determined by the passive electrical characteristics of the membrane is called electrotonic potential
21. Local response (local response): subthreshold stimulation or opening of chemically gated channels slightly increase the permeability of local cell membrane to Na +, and a small membrane depolarization occurs, which is called local response. At this time, the membrane potential is close to the threshold potential, which increases the excitability of local cells
22. Endplate potential: under the action of acetylcholine, the cation channel of ACh receptor in endplate membrane opens and the endplate membrane depolarizes, which is called endplate potential
23. Saltator conction: in myelinated nerve fibers, local current only occurs between the Langfei node where action potential occurs and the Langfei node where resting potential occurs. This conction mode is called saltator conction. Myelinated nerve fibers and their saltator conction are the procts of biological evolution
24. Depolarization: depolarization refers to the decrease of absolute value of resting potential
25. Hyperpolarization: the increase of absolute value of resting potential is called hyperpolarization
26. Excitation contraction potential: the mediating mechanism that connects the excitation process characterized by electrical changes of membrane with the contraction process based on mechanical changes of muscle fiber is called excitation contraction coupling. Its structure is based on myotube system, and the key part is triple tube structure
27. Cross bridge cycling: a basic process of muscle contraction completed by the binding, swinging, dissociation, reset and re combination of the cross bridge and actin, which is called a cross bridge cycle
28. Quantum release: the neurotransmitter mass stored in each synaptic vesicle is usually quite constant, and it is released through exocytosis, which is called quantum release
29. Calcium inced Ca2 + release (CICR): a process in which the influx of a small amount of Ca2 + causes the release of a large amount of Ca2 + from the intracellular Ca2 + pool is called calcium triggered Ca2 + release
30. Isotonic contraction: when the muscle is contracted, it only shortens and the tension remains unchanged, which is called isotonic contraction
31. Isometric contraction: when a muscle contracts, its length remains unchanged but only its tension increases, which is called isometric contraction
32. Preload: the load that muscles bear before contraction is called preload. The preload determines the initial length of the muscle
33. Afterload: the load and resistance that can only be met when muscles begin to contract, which is called afterload
34. Tetanus: when skeletal muscle is continuously stimulated with high frequency, the sum of the contraction process and the previous unfinished contraction process can occur, which is called tetanus contraction
35. Hematocrit: the volume percentage of blood cells in the blood is called hematocrit. Normal value: alt male about 40% - 50%, alt female about 37% - 48%, newborn about 55%
36. Suspension stability: when the blood sedimentation tube containing anticoagulant is placed vertically, although the proportion of red blood cells is larger than that of plasma, the red blood cells sink slowly under normal conditions, indicating that red blood cells can be relatively stable suspended in plasma, which is called suspension stability
37. Osmotic fragility of red blood cells: the characteristic of expansion and rupture of red blood cells in hypotonic solution is called osmotic fragility of red blood cells. The greater the osmotic fragility of red blood cells, the lower the resistance to hypotonic solution, and vice versa
38. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR): the sedimentation rate of red blood cells is usually expressed by the distance of red blood cells sinking at the end of the first hour. The normal value is 0-15 mm / h in male and 0-20 mm / h in female
39 and blood coagulation (BLOODCOAGULATION): blood coagulation refers to the process of changing blood from a flowing liquid state to a stagnant gel state. Hemagglutination is the process of transforming soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrinogen in plasma. It is a complex process of protein enzymolysis involving a series of coagulation factors
40. Physiological hemostasis: after the small blood vessel is damaged, the blood will flow out of the blood vessel and stop within a few minutes. This phenomenon is called physiological hemostasis
41. Maximum repolarization potential: the maximum membrane potential at the end of repolarization 3 of cardiac autonomic cell action potential, which is called maximum repolarization potential
42. Cardiac cycle: cardiac cycle refers to a mechanical activity cycle composed of every contraction and relaxation of the ventricle or atrium, which can be divided into systolic and diastolic phases, usually referring to the activity cycle of the ventricle
43. Effective refractory period (eiiod): from 0 to 3 repolarization of myocardial action potential to - 60 mV period, any stimulation will not make myocardial action potential, which is called effective refractory period
44. Cardiac index: the cardiac output calculated by unit body surface area is called cardiac index, and the cardiac index under quiet and fasting conditions is called resting cardiac index. The resting heart index of normal alts was 3.0-3.5 L / (min) ﹥ 8226; m2)< Cardiac output: the amount of blood ejected from one side of the ventricle per minute, which is called cardiac output for short. The average cardiac output of normal people at rest is about 4.5-6.0 L / min
46. Ejection fraction (EF): the percentage of stroke volume in ventricular end diastolic volume is called ejection fraction. About 55% - 65% of normal alts are quiet
47. Systolic pressure (SP): ring ventricular systolic ejection, arterial blood pressure rises rapidly, and the highest value is called systolic pressure. The systolic blood pressure of healthy young people at rest is about 100-120mmhg
48. Diastolic pressure (DP): when the ventricle is diastolic, the arterial blood pressure decreases, and the lowest value reached in the end diastolic phase is called diastolic pressure. The diastolic blood pressure of healthy young people at rest is about 60-80mmhg
49. Pulse pressure: the difference between systolic pressure and diastolic pressure is called pulse pressure. The pulse pressure of healthy young people at rest is about 30-40mmhg
50. Mean circulatory filling pressure: mean filling pressure means that the heart stops beating temporarily, the blood flow stops, and the pressure of each segment of the circulatory system is balanced. At this time, the pressure of each segment of the circulatory system is equal, about 7mmhg in normal people
51. Mean arterial pressure (map): the average value of arterial blood pressure at each instant in a cardiac cycle, which is called mean arterial pressure. It is about equal to diastolic blood pressure + 1 / 3 pulse pressure. It is about 100mmhg at rest in normal young people in China
52. Central venous pressure (CVP): CVP refers to the blood pressure of the right atrium and the great thoracic vein, which is inversely related to the cardiac ejection capacity and positively related to the venous return blood volume, and is one of the indexes to judge the cardiac function. It is generally 4-12 cmH2O
53. Premature systole: in the effective refractory period of ventricular muscle