The main performance of decentralized development model in Germa
Publish: 2021-04-20 02:24:31
1. What's the population of Germany? What is the German way of life? What are the German values? Each country can only follow its own rules to formulate solutions
2. 1 Main features
the German model is the so-called social market economy model. Germany believes that it implements a macro-controlled social market economy, which opposes both economic laissez faire and tight control of the economy, but combines indivial free creation with the principle of social progress. It not only guarantees the freedom of private enterprises and private property, but also makes the implementation of these rights bring benefits to the public. In the relationship between the state and the market, its principle is that the state should intervene as little as possible and only give necessary intervention. The state mainly plays a regulatory role in the market economy and provides a general framework for market operation. Therefore, the social market economy implemented in Germany is actually a market economy regulated by the state to ensure the balance between market freedom and social equity< (2) the foundation of social market economy
whatever market economy can adjust by itself should be solved by the market. The state only makes rules for the normal operation of the market and intervenes where the market fails. So the social market in Germany is market-based
in Germany, the state basically does not set wages and prices, nor does it set specific proction indicators. These are basically determined automatically by market supply and demand. However, the prices of German agricultural procts are not set by the market, but by the European common market. Therefore, the government has to subsidize several billion marks every year; The prices of German railways and posts and telecommunications are also set by the federal government and subsidized by the federal government in case of losses
since competition is a prerequisite for the normal operation of market economy, there will be no market without competition. Therefore, Germany has enacted a series of relevant laws, such as the anti restriction of competition law, and established corresponding institutions, namely the cartel Bureau (in fact, the anti cartel Bureau), to prohibit enterprises from entering into monopoly agreements with enterprises on proction, price, sales and market segmentation, to prohibit enterprise mergers that hinder or destroy the market, and to prohibit monopoly of foreign trade, Other monopolistic organizations or groups that harm the interests of consumers are prohibited; Encourage small and medium-sized enterprises to cooperate and actively participate in competition; The freedom of proction, operation, investment, employment and labor negotiation shall be guaranteed. Any merger or cooperation agreement between enterprises that is concive to competition can be carried out, but it must be approved by the cartel Bureau, and violators will be severely punished. In addition, Germany has also formulated the anti unfair competition law, which severely punishes such unfair behaviors as fake advertisements, short weight, fake trademarks, and shoddy goods to protect the legitimate interests of competitors and consumers. Other relevant laws include: Law on adjustment of general terms of trade, discount law, supplementary gift law, trademark law, patent law, etc. These laws set standards for the normal operation of the market. Germany also stipulates the preconditions for some occupations to enter the market. For example, the handicraft instry requires retailers to prove their professional knowledge before starting business. For the departments of health, legal consultation, accounting consultation and tax consultation, the state requires applicants to receive special training and have a certain age standard
in Germany, wages are basically formed freely in the labor market, and the two sides negotiate freely and sign labor agreements. Labor negotiations in Germany are concted collectively. Generally, trade union federations and employers' federations of an instrial sector negotiate and sign agreements on issues such as wage growth rate on behalf of both parties once a year. As for the days of leave, the period of dismissal notice, overtime pay, bonus and other issues, an agreement is usually signed once a few years. In this process, the government takes a neutral attitude and does not intervene< (3) macroeconomic management
in the social market economy, the state does not directly intervene in the economic process itself, but it does not mean that the state does not have any economic plan. The German government and local governments at all levels have certain economic plans, including medium-term, annual and short-term ones. However, these plans only stipulate some comprehensive indicators, which have no binding force on enterprises. They need to be adjusted by means of finance, taxation, credit and so on. For example, in the four short-term plans from 1974 to 1975, the federal government spent 100 billion marks to stimulate the economy, which played a certain role in easing the economic recession ring this period. Another example is the current plan to transform the eastern region. Since 1990, the government has invested more than 100 billion marks a year in the eastern states, mainly to transform the railway, highway, telecommunications and other infrastructure, and take tax incentives and other measures to attract private capital to participate in the transformation of the eastern region< (4) the special role of the Bundesbank< (5) German enterprise organization system.
the German model is the so-called social market economy model. Germany believes that it implements a macro-controlled social market economy, which opposes both economic laissez faire and tight control of the economy, but combines indivial free creation with the principle of social progress. It not only guarantees the freedom of private enterprises and private property, but also makes the implementation of these rights bring benefits to the public. In the relationship between the state and the market, its principle is that the state should intervene as little as possible and only give necessary intervention. The state mainly plays a regulatory role in the market economy and provides a general framework for market operation. Therefore, the social market economy implemented in Germany is actually a market economy regulated by the state to ensure the balance between market freedom and social equity< (2) the foundation of social market economy
whatever market economy can adjust by itself should be solved by the market. The state only makes rules for the normal operation of the market and intervenes where the market fails. So the social market in Germany is market-based
in Germany, the state basically does not set wages and prices, nor does it set specific proction indicators. These are basically determined automatically by market supply and demand. However, the prices of German agricultural procts are not set by the market, but by the European common market. Therefore, the government has to subsidize several billion marks every year; The prices of German railways and posts and telecommunications are also set by the federal government and subsidized by the federal government in case of losses
since competition is a prerequisite for the normal operation of market economy, there will be no market without competition. Therefore, Germany has enacted a series of relevant laws, such as the anti restriction of competition law, and established corresponding institutions, namely the cartel Bureau (in fact, the anti cartel Bureau), to prohibit enterprises from entering into monopoly agreements with enterprises on proction, price, sales and market segmentation, to prohibit enterprise mergers that hinder or destroy the market, and to prohibit monopoly of foreign trade, Other monopolistic organizations or groups that harm the interests of consumers are prohibited; Encourage small and medium-sized enterprises to cooperate and actively participate in competition; The freedom of proction, operation, investment, employment and labor negotiation shall be guaranteed. Any merger or cooperation agreement between enterprises that is concive to competition can be carried out, but it must be approved by the cartel Bureau, and violators will be severely punished. In addition, Germany has also formulated the anti unfair competition law, which severely punishes such unfair behaviors as fake advertisements, short weight, fake trademarks, and shoddy goods to protect the legitimate interests of competitors and consumers. Other relevant laws include: Law on adjustment of general terms of trade, discount law, supplementary gift law, trademark law, patent law, etc. These laws set standards for the normal operation of the market. Germany also stipulates the preconditions for some occupations to enter the market. For example, the handicraft instry requires retailers to prove their professional knowledge before starting business. For the departments of health, legal consultation, accounting consultation and tax consultation, the state requires applicants to receive special training and have a certain age standard
in Germany, wages are basically formed freely in the labor market, and the two sides negotiate freely and sign labor agreements. Labor negotiations in Germany are concted collectively. Generally, trade union federations and employers' federations of an instrial sector negotiate and sign agreements on issues such as wage growth rate on behalf of both parties once a year. As for the days of leave, the period of dismissal notice, overtime pay, bonus and other issues, an agreement is usually signed once a few years. In this process, the government takes a neutral attitude and does not intervene< (3) macroeconomic management
in the social market economy, the state does not directly intervene in the economic process itself, but it does not mean that the state does not have any economic plan. The German government and local governments at all levels have certain economic plans, including medium-term, annual and short-term ones. However, these plans only stipulate some comprehensive indicators, which have no binding force on enterprises. They need to be adjusted by means of finance, taxation, credit and so on. For example, in the four short-term plans from 1974 to 1975, the federal government spent 100 billion marks to stimulate the economy, which played a certain role in easing the economic recession ring this period. Another example is the current plan to transform the eastern region. Since 1990, the government has invested more than 100 billion marks a year in the eastern states, mainly to transform the railway, highway, telecommunications and other infrastructure, and take tax incentives and other measures to attract private capital to participate in the transformation of the eastern region< (4) the special role of the Bundesbank< (5) German enterprise organization system.
3. Japan's government led economic development model after World War II
after World War II, the Federal Republic of Germany government macro-control, guiding the economy
the market economy model of the United States can be elaborated from two aspects: one is the decentralized decision-making market economy; the other is the decentralized decision-making market economy; Second, the government's regulation and management of the economy. These two aspects are interdependent and interact with each other, and become an integral part of the American market economy model
the market system and enterprise system in the United States are mutually causal, adaptable and unified. A mature market system is the link between the main bodies of the market economy and the guarantee of the effective operation of the market mechanism. The market guides enterprises, provides effective economic information and decision-making basis for enterprises, and provides fair competition environment and broad development space. Free enterprise system is a necessary condition of market system and the soul of American market economy
in the new economic era of the United States, the government directly or indirectly intervenes to stimulate the business activities of enterprises, so that they can play their potential and contribute to the prosperity of the economy. That is to say, the relationship between government and enterprises was a new concept at that time< Bismarck has found a development model for developing countries to catch up with and surpass advanced countries: he regards the country as a powerful force to promote economic development, makes policies and laws to guide the direction of economic operation, and uses the strength of the country to establish the world's earliest social welfare system. These measures, to some extent, overcome the disadvantages of the free market economy created by Britain, thus providing a new choice for some developing countries on the road of development
each region in China has its own characteristics and modes of instrial development. However, e to the weak instrial foundation, shortage of funds and talents, and lack of experience, China has taken a traditional instrialization road of decentralized and intensive development
if the future development model of instry is divided into traditional development model and modern development model by the method of old and new classification
the traditional mode refers to the more formal, easy to understand, visible development mode of focusing on instry
the modern mode refers to the development mode which is unconventional, difficult to grasp, invisible, beyond instry and focusing on instry
the traditional development model can make instry bigger in the instrial development of a place, while the modern development model can make instry stronger
in the instrial development of a place, the two development models go hand in hand, complement and promote each other
different regions should focus on one of the two development models
as far as the traditional development mode is concerned, its main means are: expanding the scale of enterprises, recing proct costs, extending the instrial chain, improving proct quality, cultivating instrial clusters, developing new procts, etc. The successful example is Huizhou model. Its characteristic is step by step, has the mature theory and the experience. Its disadvantages are fierce competition and strong dependence on congenital factors of proction. Therefore, in the future development of a place, the traditional development model should strive to suit measures to local conditions, do fine and fine, so that people have their own advantages. As far as Wanzhou is concerned, we should focus on the advantages of salt and gas chemical resources, regional economic center, private capital and immigration policy, and actively transform various natural advantages into commodity advantages and competitive advantages. At the same time, we should vigorously develop non metric economy, enhance vitality, and be good at making use of resources outside the region under the condition of limited resources< According to the analysis of modern development mode, the main means are: information driven, knowledge-based economy, modern logistics, human resources, high-tech, high-tech materials, etc. The successful example is Yiwu model. It is characterized by preconceptions, unconventional leaping development, little dependence on congenital factors of proction, and can achieve sustainable development. Its disadvantages are that there is no ready-made theory and experience to be found, it has a strong dependence on the natural factors of proction, and it has a very high requirement for the grasp and judgment of the opportunity and high-level talents, so it has a great risk. Therefore, in the future development of a place, the modern development mode should strive to be the first, so that no one has his own, and take the lead in occupying the market opportunities. As far as Wan Zhou Wei is concerned, we should focus on the work of information driven, the introction of high-level talents and the first use of high-tech and high-tech materials.
after World War II, the Federal Republic of Germany government macro-control, guiding the economy
the market economy model of the United States can be elaborated from two aspects: one is the decentralized decision-making market economy; the other is the decentralized decision-making market economy; Second, the government's regulation and management of the economy. These two aspects are interdependent and interact with each other, and become an integral part of the American market economy model
the market system and enterprise system in the United States are mutually causal, adaptable and unified. A mature market system is the link between the main bodies of the market economy and the guarantee of the effective operation of the market mechanism. The market guides enterprises, provides effective economic information and decision-making basis for enterprises, and provides fair competition environment and broad development space. Free enterprise system is a necessary condition of market system and the soul of American market economy
in the new economic era of the United States, the government directly or indirectly intervenes to stimulate the business activities of enterprises, so that they can play their potential and contribute to the prosperity of the economy. That is to say, the relationship between government and enterprises was a new concept at that time< Bismarck has found a development model for developing countries to catch up with and surpass advanced countries: he regards the country as a powerful force to promote economic development, makes policies and laws to guide the direction of economic operation, and uses the strength of the country to establish the world's earliest social welfare system. These measures, to some extent, overcome the disadvantages of the free market economy created by Britain, thus providing a new choice for some developing countries on the road of development
each region in China has its own characteristics and modes of instrial development. However, e to the weak instrial foundation, shortage of funds and talents, and lack of experience, China has taken a traditional instrialization road of decentralized and intensive development
if the future development model of instry is divided into traditional development model and modern development model by the method of old and new classification
the traditional mode refers to the more formal, easy to understand, visible development mode of focusing on instry
the modern mode refers to the development mode which is unconventional, difficult to grasp, invisible, beyond instry and focusing on instry
the traditional development model can make instry bigger in the instrial development of a place, while the modern development model can make instry stronger
in the instrial development of a place, the two development models go hand in hand, complement and promote each other
different regions should focus on one of the two development models
as far as the traditional development mode is concerned, its main means are: expanding the scale of enterprises, recing proct costs, extending the instrial chain, improving proct quality, cultivating instrial clusters, developing new procts, etc. The successful example is Huizhou model. Its characteristic is step by step, has the mature theory and the experience. Its disadvantages are fierce competition and strong dependence on congenital factors of proction. Therefore, in the future development of a place, the traditional development model should strive to suit measures to local conditions, do fine and fine, so that people have their own advantages. As far as Wanzhou is concerned, we should focus on the advantages of salt and gas chemical resources, regional economic center, private capital and immigration policy, and actively transform various natural advantages into commodity advantages and competitive advantages. At the same time, we should vigorously develop non metric economy, enhance vitality, and be good at making use of resources outside the region under the condition of limited resources< According to the analysis of modern development mode, the main means are: information driven, knowledge-based economy, modern logistics, human resources, high-tech, high-tech materials, etc. The successful example is Yiwu model. It is characterized by preconceptions, unconventional leaping development, little dependence on congenital factors of proction, and can achieve sustainable development. Its disadvantages are that there is no ready-made theory and experience to be found, it has a strong dependence on the natural factors of proction, and it has a very high requirement for the grasp and judgment of the opportunity and high-level talents, so it has a great risk. Therefore, in the future development of a place, the modern development mode should strive to be the first, so that no one has his own, and take the lead in occupying the market opportunities. As far as Wan Zhou Wei is concerned, we should focus on the work of information driven, the introction of high-level talents and the first use of high-tech and high-tech materials.
4. 1 In the classical stage
from ancient Greece and Rome to the Renaissance, from the pre Qin and Han Dynasties to the modern Wang Guowei, Chinese and western ideological aesthetics is still in a form of "pre aesthetics". The main characteristics of aesthetic thought in this stage are as follows: some basic questions, concepts and categories about aesthetics were put forward preliminarily and relatively fragmentary, and some incomplete answers were given; Thinking about beauty is often directly related to people's philosophical and ethical grasp of social life, "beauty" and "good" are often confused. That is to say, when people think about the problems of beauty, including the essence of beauty and the social role of art, they have not completely got rid of the form of intuitive experience, nor have they been strictly separated from the thinking of philosophy, morality, religion and art theory, and have not formed their own unique object scope and made independent and systematic answers to the problems
specifically speaking, the ancient Chinese sages in the pre Qin and Han Dynasties mainly focused on the emotional position of human beings, and discussed the aesthetic problems of human beings from the philosophical and ethical levels. At that time, Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Mohism and other schools of thought all contained a lot of valuable aesthetic thoughts. For example, in Zuozhuan, Guoyu, Shangshu and other classics, there are such propositions as the beauty of "five flavors", "five colors" and "five tones", as well as important opinions about "harmlessness is beauty" and "harmony is beauty". Among them, Confucianism emphasizes the social function of beauty and art; Confucius's Poetics of "Xing, Guan, Qun, Yuan" and the principles of "Neutralization" and "perfection" of "pleasure without lust" and "sorrow without sorrow" and Mencius' proposition of "enrichment is beauty" reflect the distinct social ethical tendency of Confucian aesthetics. Taoism, on the other hand, emphasizes the transcendence and natural simplicity of art and aesthetics from the attitude of "carefree" and "Inaction"; Lao Tzu's views on great sound is hard to hear. Chuang-tzu's "China's aesthetic thinking" is an important factor in the history of Chinese aesthetics.
from the Wei and Jin Dynasties to the modern times before Wang Guowei, Chinese aesthetic thought was further developed and enriched. People have put their eyes on poetry, painting, music, dance, opera, calligraphy and crafts, and put forward some unique aesthetic categories such as image, mental thinking, charm and artistic conception, which make aesthetic thinking more refined. In particular, most of the aesthetic thinkers at that time were poets, painters or calligraphers at the same time, so their aesthetic thinking was often directly related to the actual artistic experience, which effectively promoted the aesthetic thinking to turn from the problem of "beauty" and "goodness" to the problem of aesthetic and artistic characteristics, and deepened the combination of intuitive perception form and classical rational spirit in ancient Chinese aesthetic thought
the origin of western aesthetics is mainly based on the pursuit of the essence of things and the efforts to unify the definition of various arts. Ancient Greek scholars once made a lot of conjectures about "what is beauty" and "how beautiful things come into being". For example, Pythagoras regarded the harmonious relationship of quantity as the foundation of artistic (musical) beauty, and advocated that beauty is "harmony and proportion". In particular, Plato and Aristotles discussed the essence of beauty in a certain depth. For example, Plato put forward a very important view in his series of "dialogues", that is, beauty has a very wide range, body, mind, behavior, system and so on are all beauty. However, to explore the essence of beauty, we should not investigate what is "beautiful", but should explore the common essence of beauty ("beauty itself") that leads to all things of beauty. Aristotle, on the other hand, in his works such as poetics, deeply analyzed the artistic characteristics and artistic origin of tragedy, put forward the famous "imitation theory" and "purification theory", and combined the thought of "beauty is harmony" with people's understanding of biological organism at that time, thus becoming the first aesthetician with his own independent theoretical system in the history of western aesthetics
in the middle ages, under the guidance of Christian theology, aesthetics, at the cost of suppressing the richness of human nature, completely attributed the glory of aesthetics to God (God), "the God of Christianity replaced the supreme goodness and reason, and God is wisdom, benevolence and the highest beauty, which is the source of all things of natural beauty on the ladder of the creator's contemplation". This kind of aesthetic ideal of taking God as the center was severely impacted in the Renaissance tide of people-oriented. Since then, under the impetus of French classicism aesthetics, British empiricism aesthetics, D. Diderot's "beauty in relation theory" and G. E. Lessing's "poetry painting identity theory", western aesthetics has become increasingly rich, which has laid the necessary theoretical foundation for the formal establishment of aesthetics
in a word, emphasizing the unity of truth, goodness and beauty, especially the unity of beauty and goodness, is basically the same ideological trend between China and the West in the form of "pre aesthetics". Aristotle thought: "beauty is a kind of good, so it causes pleasure just because it is good". Confucius said that "quality is better than literature, and literature is better than quality. Mencius' so-called "enrichment means beauty, enrichment and brilliance means greatness, greatness means holiness, holiness and unknowable means God" and Xunzi's ontology of beauty of "the whole essence of the United States" and the theory of natural beauty of "water, jade and virtue" emphasize the consistency and harmony between beauty and good. This shows that in the early development of human thought, the proposition and discussion of aesthetic issues were closely related to the politics, ethics and life ideals of the society at that time, and also an important part of the whole early human thought< At this stage, the main characteristics of the development of aesthetics are as follows: as an independent theoretical discipline, "Aesthetics" has been formally established and matured in German classical aesthetics, completing the systematic and morphological theoretical construction
in 1735, the German philosopher A.G. Baumgarten first raised the issue of the object of study of the philosophy of poetry in his philosophical meditation on poetry, and called the philosophy of poetry "perceptual" with the Greek word "estetik" (stetik in German, aesthetics in English), Poetry, as a "perfect perceptual talk" (that is, the cognition and expression of "perfect" perceptual representation), is a "perceptible thing" and an object of philosophy or art of poetry. "Philosophical investigation of poetry is a science to guide perceptual talk towards perfection", and the art of poetry is "a science of perfect expression of perceptual representation"< However, although Baumgarten called the philosophy of poetry "sensibility" at this time, he did not formally name it aesthetics. It was not until 1750 that he published a Latin monograph on perceptual knowledge (i.e. aesthetics Volume I) under the title of stetik that aesthetics was born as an independent discipline, and Baumgarten was praised as "the father of aesthetics" by later generations
from Baumgarten, we find that firstly, aesthetics was originally proposed as an epistemology opposite to logic. ⑥ Baumgarten pointed out that human psychology is divided into three levels: "knowledge", "emotion" and "meaning". Logic studies knowledge or rational knowledge, and ethics studies will. Only human emotion ("chaotic" perceptual knowledge) has not been studied by corresponding science. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a new science to make up for this loophole. This is what he means by saying that aesthetics "is the science of perceptual knowledge" at the beginning of the book, thus preliminarily defining the object and scope of aesthetics. On this basis, Baumgarten constructs an aesthetic framework which includes two parts: theoretical aesthetics and practical aesthetics: the former includes Enlightenment (general rules about things and thinking), methodology (general rules about well-organized arrangements), semantics (general rules about the means of expression of things thought and arranged in a beautiful way), Concerning the general rules of the theme, thought, structure and language expression of poetry or art, the central goal is to realize the perfection of beauty perceptual knowledge; Practical aesthetics studies how to use general rules in indivial cases. Although this system framework is basically artistic, it has important inspiration for later aesthetic research. Secondly, aesthetics studies the part with aesthetic attribute in human cognition. Baumgarten believes that perceptual knowledge includes three aspects: one is the natural endowment of thinking in a beautiful way in the mind, that is, people's low-level cognitive ability and corresponding endowment (sensibility, fantasy, memory, vision, taste, creative talent, foresight and premonition, the ability to express appearance, etc.) and high-level cognitive ability (such as intellectuality and rationality) Natural aesthetic temperament (such as emotional ability); Second, aesthetic training, that is, the cultivation of aesthetic ability; Third, aesthetic theory and aesthetic guidance. The so-called "perfection of perceptual knowledge" and the realization of beauty is a process of comprehensive activities with low-level cognitive ability as the main body and various psychological factors as well as aesthetic concepts and skills. In this way, aesthetics (perceptual science) proposed as epistemology is also a science of art and beauty“ The purpose of aesthetics is the perfection of perceptual knowledge itself, which is beauty. Beauty, as the result of perceptual knowledge, is the perfection of "the sum of appearances". It is poetry, "the art of beauty" and "the art of freedom"
as the successor of rationalism in the mainland, Baumgarten's main contribution lies in finding an appropriate name for aesthetics from the division of human psychological structure, which makes human aesthetic thinking finally have its own clear object after a long period of development. When he followed the traditional philosophy's high and low division of perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge, he paid e attention to perceptual knowledge and emphasized the independent cognitive value of aesthetic research, which inspired his fellow countrymen Kant, Schelling, Schiller, Hegel, etc. to finally build a rich, rational, aesthetic and aesthetic system at a higher level German classical aesthetics with complete system
Kant and Hegel, taking Baumgarten's aesthetics as the starting point, are committed to solving the problem of the harmonious and free unity of sensibility and rationality, and promote their own theoretical systems respectively, making unique contributions to the construction and development of aesthetics. Kant's aesthetics focuses on human's perceptual cognitive ability and subjective psychological function, and profoundly puts forward the problem of "aesthetic judgment". It not only gives the aesthetic judgment (i.e. aesthetic psychological mechanism) a combined and orderly expression, but also in the process of focusing on the analysis of aesthetic psychological mechanism, metaphysically explores beauty (emotional representation), and metaphysically extends art, It constructs an aesthetic system of transcendental philosophy with aesthetic judgment as the center. In this way, in Kant's view, aesthetics is no longer an empty theoretical framework, but a rigorous system with substantial content, clear objects and a series of conceptual categories
Hegel focuses on the proct of perceptual cognition, its counterpart Poetry (Art) and the history of art. In his view, beauty is "the perceptual manifestation of ideas", and art, as an "absolute idea", is externalized into the perceptual image of the subject's mind,
from ancient Greece and Rome to the Renaissance, from the pre Qin and Han Dynasties to the modern Wang Guowei, Chinese and western ideological aesthetics is still in a form of "pre aesthetics". The main characteristics of aesthetic thought in this stage are as follows: some basic questions, concepts and categories about aesthetics were put forward preliminarily and relatively fragmentary, and some incomplete answers were given; Thinking about beauty is often directly related to people's philosophical and ethical grasp of social life, "beauty" and "good" are often confused. That is to say, when people think about the problems of beauty, including the essence of beauty and the social role of art, they have not completely got rid of the form of intuitive experience, nor have they been strictly separated from the thinking of philosophy, morality, religion and art theory, and have not formed their own unique object scope and made independent and systematic answers to the problems
specifically speaking, the ancient Chinese sages in the pre Qin and Han Dynasties mainly focused on the emotional position of human beings, and discussed the aesthetic problems of human beings from the philosophical and ethical levels. At that time, Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Mohism and other schools of thought all contained a lot of valuable aesthetic thoughts. For example, in Zuozhuan, Guoyu, Shangshu and other classics, there are such propositions as the beauty of "five flavors", "five colors" and "five tones", as well as important opinions about "harmlessness is beauty" and "harmony is beauty". Among them, Confucianism emphasizes the social function of beauty and art; Confucius's Poetics of "Xing, Guan, Qun, Yuan" and the principles of "Neutralization" and "perfection" of "pleasure without lust" and "sorrow without sorrow" and Mencius' proposition of "enrichment is beauty" reflect the distinct social ethical tendency of Confucian aesthetics. Taoism, on the other hand, emphasizes the transcendence and natural simplicity of art and aesthetics from the attitude of "carefree" and "Inaction"; Lao Tzu's views on great sound is hard to hear. Chuang-tzu's "China's aesthetic thinking" is an important factor in the history of Chinese aesthetics.
from the Wei and Jin Dynasties to the modern times before Wang Guowei, Chinese aesthetic thought was further developed and enriched. People have put their eyes on poetry, painting, music, dance, opera, calligraphy and crafts, and put forward some unique aesthetic categories such as image, mental thinking, charm and artistic conception, which make aesthetic thinking more refined. In particular, most of the aesthetic thinkers at that time were poets, painters or calligraphers at the same time, so their aesthetic thinking was often directly related to the actual artistic experience, which effectively promoted the aesthetic thinking to turn from the problem of "beauty" and "goodness" to the problem of aesthetic and artistic characteristics, and deepened the combination of intuitive perception form and classical rational spirit in ancient Chinese aesthetic thought
the origin of western aesthetics is mainly based on the pursuit of the essence of things and the efforts to unify the definition of various arts. Ancient Greek scholars once made a lot of conjectures about "what is beauty" and "how beautiful things come into being". For example, Pythagoras regarded the harmonious relationship of quantity as the foundation of artistic (musical) beauty, and advocated that beauty is "harmony and proportion". In particular, Plato and Aristotles discussed the essence of beauty in a certain depth. For example, Plato put forward a very important view in his series of "dialogues", that is, beauty has a very wide range, body, mind, behavior, system and so on are all beauty. However, to explore the essence of beauty, we should not investigate what is "beautiful", but should explore the common essence of beauty ("beauty itself") that leads to all things of beauty. Aristotle, on the other hand, in his works such as poetics, deeply analyzed the artistic characteristics and artistic origin of tragedy, put forward the famous "imitation theory" and "purification theory", and combined the thought of "beauty is harmony" with people's understanding of biological organism at that time, thus becoming the first aesthetician with his own independent theoretical system in the history of western aesthetics
in the middle ages, under the guidance of Christian theology, aesthetics, at the cost of suppressing the richness of human nature, completely attributed the glory of aesthetics to God (God), "the God of Christianity replaced the supreme goodness and reason, and God is wisdom, benevolence and the highest beauty, which is the source of all things of natural beauty on the ladder of the creator's contemplation". This kind of aesthetic ideal of taking God as the center was severely impacted in the Renaissance tide of people-oriented. Since then, under the impetus of French classicism aesthetics, British empiricism aesthetics, D. Diderot's "beauty in relation theory" and G. E. Lessing's "poetry painting identity theory", western aesthetics has become increasingly rich, which has laid the necessary theoretical foundation for the formal establishment of aesthetics
in a word, emphasizing the unity of truth, goodness and beauty, especially the unity of beauty and goodness, is basically the same ideological trend between China and the West in the form of "pre aesthetics". Aristotle thought: "beauty is a kind of good, so it causes pleasure just because it is good". Confucius said that "quality is better than literature, and literature is better than quality. Mencius' so-called "enrichment means beauty, enrichment and brilliance means greatness, greatness means holiness, holiness and unknowable means God" and Xunzi's ontology of beauty of "the whole essence of the United States" and the theory of natural beauty of "water, jade and virtue" emphasize the consistency and harmony between beauty and good. This shows that in the early development of human thought, the proposition and discussion of aesthetic issues were closely related to the politics, ethics and life ideals of the society at that time, and also an important part of the whole early human thought< At this stage, the main characteristics of the development of aesthetics are as follows: as an independent theoretical discipline, "Aesthetics" has been formally established and matured in German classical aesthetics, completing the systematic and morphological theoretical construction
in 1735, the German philosopher A.G. Baumgarten first raised the issue of the object of study of the philosophy of poetry in his philosophical meditation on poetry, and called the philosophy of poetry "perceptual" with the Greek word "estetik" (stetik in German, aesthetics in English), Poetry, as a "perfect perceptual talk" (that is, the cognition and expression of "perfect" perceptual representation), is a "perceptible thing" and an object of philosophy or art of poetry. "Philosophical investigation of poetry is a science to guide perceptual talk towards perfection", and the art of poetry is "a science of perfect expression of perceptual representation"< However, although Baumgarten called the philosophy of poetry "sensibility" at this time, he did not formally name it aesthetics. It was not until 1750 that he published a Latin monograph on perceptual knowledge (i.e. aesthetics Volume I) under the title of stetik that aesthetics was born as an independent discipline, and Baumgarten was praised as "the father of aesthetics" by later generations
from Baumgarten, we find that firstly, aesthetics was originally proposed as an epistemology opposite to logic. ⑥ Baumgarten pointed out that human psychology is divided into three levels: "knowledge", "emotion" and "meaning". Logic studies knowledge or rational knowledge, and ethics studies will. Only human emotion ("chaotic" perceptual knowledge) has not been studied by corresponding science. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a new science to make up for this loophole. This is what he means by saying that aesthetics "is the science of perceptual knowledge" at the beginning of the book, thus preliminarily defining the object and scope of aesthetics. On this basis, Baumgarten constructs an aesthetic framework which includes two parts: theoretical aesthetics and practical aesthetics: the former includes Enlightenment (general rules about things and thinking), methodology (general rules about well-organized arrangements), semantics (general rules about the means of expression of things thought and arranged in a beautiful way), Concerning the general rules of the theme, thought, structure and language expression of poetry or art, the central goal is to realize the perfection of beauty perceptual knowledge; Practical aesthetics studies how to use general rules in indivial cases. Although this system framework is basically artistic, it has important inspiration for later aesthetic research. Secondly, aesthetics studies the part with aesthetic attribute in human cognition. Baumgarten believes that perceptual knowledge includes three aspects: one is the natural endowment of thinking in a beautiful way in the mind, that is, people's low-level cognitive ability and corresponding endowment (sensibility, fantasy, memory, vision, taste, creative talent, foresight and premonition, the ability to express appearance, etc.) and high-level cognitive ability (such as intellectuality and rationality) Natural aesthetic temperament (such as emotional ability); Second, aesthetic training, that is, the cultivation of aesthetic ability; Third, aesthetic theory and aesthetic guidance. The so-called "perfection of perceptual knowledge" and the realization of beauty is a process of comprehensive activities with low-level cognitive ability as the main body and various psychological factors as well as aesthetic concepts and skills. In this way, aesthetics (perceptual science) proposed as epistemology is also a science of art and beauty“ The purpose of aesthetics is the perfection of perceptual knowledge itself, which is beauty. Beauty, as the result of perceptual knowledge, is the perfection of "the sum of appearances". It is poetry, "the art of beauty" and "the art of freedom"
as the successor of rationalism in the mainland, Baumgarten's main contribution lies in finding an appropriate name for aesthetics from the division of human psychological structure, which makes human aesthetic thinking finally have its own clear object after a long period of development. When he followed the traditional philosophy's high and low division of perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge, he paid e attention to perceptual knowledge and emphasized the independent cognitive value of aesthetic research, which inspired his fellow countrymen Kant, Schelling, Schiller, Hegel, etc. to finally build a rich, rational, aesthetic and aesthetic system at a higher level German classical aesthetics with complete system
Kant and Hegel, taking Baumgarten's aesthetics as the starting point, are committed to solving the problem of the harmonious and free unity of sensibility and rationality, and promote their own theoretical systems respectively, making unique contributions to the construction and development of aesthetics. Kant's aesthetics focuses on human's perceptual cognitive ability and subjective psychological function, and profoundly puts forward the problem of "aesthetic judgment". It not only gives the aesthetic judgment (i.e. aesthetic psychological mechanism) a combined and orderly expression, but also in the process of focusing on the analysis of aesthetic psychological mechanism, metaphysically explores beauty (emotional representation), and metaphysically extends art, It constructs an aesthetic system of transcendental philosophy with aesthetic judgment as the center. In this way, in Kant's view, aesthetics is no longer an empty theoretical framework, but a rigorous system with substantial content, clear objects and a series of conceptual categories
Hegel focuses on the proct of perceptual cognition, its counterpart Poetry (Art) and the history of art. In his view, beauty is "the perceptual manifestation of ideas", and art, as an "absolute idea", is externalized into the perceptual image of the subject's mind,
5. Now there are more and more pawns, and they are becoming more and more formal, but we still need to be careful. Many pawnbrokers are not very systematic and formal. You should carefully consider and choose a big pawnbroker with good reputation. You can go to the "China pawnbroker Alliance Network Forum". There are big pawnbrokers all over the country. You can check the detailed information inside. It's going to solve your problem. If you think it can help you, please set up a best answer. Thank you first.
Hot content