Ethereum encryption mechanism
There is an essential difference between Ethereum and bitcoin. What is the difference? Bitcoin defines a set of currency system, while Ethereum focuses on building a main chain (which can be understood as a road) to allow a large number of blockchain applications to run on this road
from this point of view, Ethereum's application scenarios are more extensive, which is why we say that Ethereum marks a simple monetary system in the era of blockchain
1.0, and a transformation to other instries and application scenarios in the era of blockchain 2.0
however, there is no perfect thing in the world. Although Ethereum has expanded the application scope of blockchain in all walks of life and improved the speed of transaction processing, it also has some disputes and doubts
first, the solution to the lack of scalability of Ethereum: slicing technology and lightning network
the bottom design of Ethereum, the biggest problem is that Ethereum has only one chain and no side chain, which means that all programs have to run on this chain equally, consuming resources and causing system congestion. Just like last year's very popular Ethereum game "encryption cat", when this game was very popular, it once caused Ethereum network paralysis
to improve the processing capacity, Ethereum proposes two ways: shard and lightning network. Let's introce these two technologies respectively
(1) fragmentation technology
vitalik buterin, founder of Ethereum, believes that the reason why mainstream blockchain networks such as bitcoin process transactions very slowly is that every miner has to process every transaction in the whole network, which is actually very inefficient. The idea of fragmentation technology is: a transaction does not need to be processed by all nodes in the whole network, as long as some nodes (miners) in the network are allowed to process it. Therefore, Ethereum network is divided into many pieces. At the same time, each piece can handle different transactions. In this way, the network performance will be greatly improved
however, the slicing technology is also controversial. As we all know, the important idea of blockchain technology is decentralization. Only when the whole network witnesses (processes) the same transaction can it have the highest authority. The Ethereum slicing technology is similar to the group witness, not all nodes witness together. In this way, it will lose the absolute "decentralization" attribute, and can only achieve the purpose of high performance by sacrificing certain characteristics of decentralization
(2) lightning network
lightning network uses the way of transaction under the chain. What does that mean? It means: when the participants of lightning network transfer money to each other, they do not need to confirm the transaction through the main chain of Ethereum, but create a payment channel between the participants and complete it under the chain
however, lightning network is not separated from the main chain. Before establishing a payment channel, you need to use the assets on the main chain as collateral to generate a balance proof, which indicates that you can transfer the corresponding balance. In the case that both parties of the transaction hold the balance certificate, both parties can make unlimited number of transfers under the chain through the payment channel
only when the off chain transaction is completed and the assets need to be transferred back to the chain, the balance change information of the main chain account will be registered on the Ethereum main chain, and no matter how many transactions occur ring this period, there will be no record on the main chain
another real benefit of lightning network is that it can save the cost of miners for you. At present, when we trade on the main chain of Ethereum, we need to consume gas and pay for miners. Once we move the transaction to the lower chain, we can save this part of the cost
Of course, lightning network is not perfect. When using the lightning network, the assets on the main chain should be used as collateral; And this part of assets as collateral can not be used before the user completes the transaction under the chain. This also determines that lightning trading is only suitable for small transactionsthe above is the problem of insufficient scalability of Ethereum, as well as the two main solutions: fragmentation technology and lightning network
Second, there are loopholes in Ethereum's smart contract and the infamous Dao event
Ethereum's smart contract is very powerful, but there are loopholes in any code. The biggest controversy of Ethereum's smart contract lies in the so-called loopholes, that is, security issues. According to relevant research, 34200 (about 3%) of the nearly 1 million smart contracts based on Ethereum contain security vulnerabilities, which will allow hackers to steal eth, freeze assets or delete contracts, such as the infamous Dao incident
(1) what does Dao meanbefore introcing the Dao event, let's first introce what Dao is. Dao is the abbreviation of decentralized
autonomous organization, which can be understood as decentralized autonomous organization. From the perspective of Ethereum, Dao is a kind of contract or a combination of contracts on the blockchain, which is used to replace the government's review and complex intermediate proceres, so as to achieve an efficient and decentralized trust system. Therefore, Dao is not a specific organization, that is to say, there can be many Dao, all kinds of Dao
(2) the infamous Dao event
however, when we talk about Dao now, we basically refer to the Dao event, that is, the infamous hacker attack event we just mentioned. As we know, the English word "the" refers to "the Dao event". The Dao event
refers to "the Dao event", because we just said that Dao is not a specific organization, there can be many Dao, all kinds of Dao
in 2016, slock.it, a German company focusing on "smart locks", launched the Dao project on Ethereum in order to realize decentralized physical exchange (such as apartments and ships). Since April 30, 2016, the financing window has been open for 28 days
unexpectedly, this Dao project is very popular. It raised more than US $100 million in just half a month. By the end of the whole financing period, it raised a total of US $150 million. Therefore, it has become the largest crowdfunding project in history. However, it didn't last long. In June, hackers took advantage of the loopholes in the smart contract to successfully transfer more than 3.6 million Ethernet coins and put them into a Dao sub organization, which has the same structure as the Dao. At that time, the price of Ethernet currency fell directly from more than $20 to less than $13
this event shows that there are loopholes in smart contracts, and once the loopholes are exploited by hackers, the consequences will be very serious. This is why many people criticize Ethereum and say that its smart contract is not smart
to solve this problem, many foreign companies begin to provide code audit services in order to solve the vulnerability problem of smart contract. From a technical point of view, some teams are currently testing smart contracts. Most of these teams are led by professors from Harvard, Stanford and Yale, and some of them have obtained investment from leading institutions
in addition to the problems of insufficient expansibility and loopholes in smart contracts, the controversy over Ethereum lies in the POS consensus mechanism it pursues, that is, the proof of equity mechanism. Under the proof of equity mechanism, if anyone holds more money and holds it for a longer time, he will get more "rights" (interests) and have the opportunity to get bookkeeping power, Bookkeeping can also be rewarded. In this way, it is easy to create the oligarchic advantage of "the stronger the stronger"
Another problem is the chaos of ICO. ICO is a common way to raise funds for blockchain projects, which we can understand as pre-sale. The outbreak of ICO projects on Ethereum has caused illegal activities such as fund allocation and money fraud under the banner of ICO, which has caused security risks to social and financial stabilityDTV share, Ethereum is an open source public blockchain platform with intelligent contract function. It provides decentralized virtual machines to handle point-to-point contracts through its private cryptocurrency, Ethernet. Key points: open source, smart contract function, public chain platform, Ethernet
Ethereum is an open source public blockchain platform with smart contract function. It provides decentralized virtual machine (Ethereum virtual machine) to process point-to-point contract through its special cryptocurrency ether (also known as "Ethereum")
The token on theblockchain is called ether, and the code is eth. It can be traded in many foreign exchange markets of cryptocurrency, and it is also the medium used to pay transaction fees and computing services on Ethereum
the concept of Ethereum was first proposed by vitalik buterin, a programmer, from 2013 to 2014, inspired by bitcoin, with the general meaning of "next generation cryptocurrency and decentralized application platform", and began to develop through ICO crowdfunding in 2014. As of February 2018, Ethernet is the second highest cryptocurrency in market value, second only to bitcoin
extended data:
Ethereum platform has no characteristics and value. Like programming languages, it's up to entrepreneurs and developers to decide what to use. However, it is clear that some application types benefit more from the functions of Ethereum than others. Ethereum is especially suitable for those applications that automatically interact directly between points or promote group coordination activities across networks
for example, coordinate the application of point-to-point market, or the automation of complex financial contracts. Bitcoin enables indivials to exchange money without the help of financial institutions, banks or governments. The impact of Ethereum may be more profound
in theory, any complex financial activities or transactions can be automatically and reliably carried out on Ethereum with coding. In addition to financial applications, any application scenario with high requirements for trust, security and persistence, such as asset registration, voting, management and Internet of things, will be affected by Ethereum platform on a large scale
Ethereum is an open source public blockchain platform with smart contract function, which provides decentralized virtual machine (Ethereum virtual machine) to process point-to-point contract through its special cryptocurrency Ethereum. The concept of Ethereum was first inspired by bitcoin by vitalik buterin, a programmer, between 2013 and 2014, and now it's 2.0. Ethereum 2.0 is also something that the whole coin circle is waiting for. In order to celebrate the birth of the genesis block of eth2.0 on December 1, chinacoin officially supports the exchange of eth2.0 verification nodes at 17:00 Hong Kong time on November 20, 2020. It will invest its own eth in the verification node mining and exchange qeth to obtain liquidity. It will participate in the mining as soon as the exchange is received. Now it will give back to the user's welfare. The top 1000 eth enjoy the over exchange of qeth according to the ratio of 1:1.02. Compared with eth2.0, qeth has too many advantages: liquidity is guaranteed, users do not need to bear the technical cost, the threshold of participation does not need 32 eth, as low as 0.1eth, nodes are maintained by the platform, and the revenue is distributed according to eth2.0< br /> < br /> < br />
compared with bitcoin, we can find that Ethereum is more difficult to develop a new encryption technology than bitcoin. This breakthrough has greatly reced the development cost and time for developers who apply blockchain technology. The emergence of Ethereum once again reiterated the need to split the center, as well as the feasibility and advantages of decentralized distributed applications, to the existing economic market, the financial sector a new direction of development and throw to the society a new entrepreneurial ideas and opportunities.
first, smart contracts are so good that they are not useless
smart contracts. As the name suggests, smart contracts refer to contracts that can be executed automatically by computer code; Ethereum virtual machine is used to execute smart contract; Smart account is the carrier that smart contract can be executed. In other words, smart account, this "account" can be controlled by Ethereum virtual machine. According to what control, according to smart contract
there is no free lunch in the world. The smart contract function is so good that it's not useless. When you trade in Ethereum, you have to pay the miner's handling charge. So what's the handling charge you have to pay on Ethereum system, and what's the relationship between
gas and handling charge
2. What's the matter with Ethereum gas
Ethereum gas is similar to automobile fuel. It needs Ethereum gas to drive smart contract. Gas is an English word, Chinese meaning: gas, gasoline, this thing in daily life, is a consumable. Why does Ethereum proce fuel
what is the meaning of gas in Ethereum? In fact, Ethereum's gas is closely related to transaction costs. Ethereum transaction needs service charge. This gas is the calculation mode of service charge of Ethereum
in the setting of Ethereum, the transaction fee is similar to an encrypted fuel, namely gas, which can drive the movement of smart contracts. When Ethereum executes transactions on the blockchain, the fuel will be graally consumed according to the rules of the characteristics
from this point of view, gas is really the same as its original intention, like automobile fuel. If you want to start a car, you must need fuel
What is the difference between the transaction fees of Ethereum gas and bitcoin In essence, Ethereum is a virtual machine, which is decentralized and controlled by people all over the world, forming a "world-class computing network". When you send a token, execute a contract, transfer Ethereum, or do other things on the block, the computer needs to calculate when processing the transaction, which consumes network resources. In this way, you have to pay the "gas" to get the computer to work for you and the miners to process the transaction for yougenerally, the higher the gas price the sender is willing to pay, the greater the value the miners get from the transaction, and the more likely the miners are to choose the transaction. In this way, miners are free to choose to trade. In order to set the gas price for the sender as a reference, miners can directly put forward the lowest gas price they need to execute the transaction
How to calculate the gas consumption of Ethereumwhen Ethereum virtual machine processes transactions, Virtual Opportunities process one by one according to the operation instructions determined in the transaction, and each operation instruction has a specified gas consumption
Ethereum system stipulates two accounts: one is normal account and the other is smart account
for ordinary transfer transaction, that is to call "normal account", the required gas is fixed 21000
when calling "smart account", because the complexity of smart contract is different, the required gas is also different. The more resources (computation, memory, etc.) used to process transactions, the more gas will be needed. For example, an addition operation will consume 3gas. If more complex operations are performed, the more gas will be consumed
then you may ask a question: when a user's transaction involves a malicious smart contract, the contract is extremely complex, and the execution of the contract will consume unlimited fuel, what should we do? The solution of Ethereum system is: in order to avoid unlimited gas consumption caused by malicious
smart contract, the user needs to set the maximum allowable fuel consumption when sending the transaction, namely
gaslimit. In this way, even if there is a malicious smart contract, the worst case is only within the fuel consumption range specified by gaslimit
What is the relationship between Ethereum gas and transaction feeson Ethereum, the service charge you pay is equal to gasprice times gasused
you can understand gasprice as the unit price of fuel and gasused as how many liters of fuel the car needs
for a car, if you say 20 yuan per liter of gasoline, 10000 liters of gasoline is 200000 yuan. For Ethereum, each
gas is 20 gigabytes (gigabytes is the unit of quantity of Ethereum currency), and 10000 gas is: 20 times 10000 equals 200000 gigabytes, 20000 gigabytes equals 0.0002 Ethereum, that is to say, the transaction procere is 0.0002 Ethereum
the specific exchange value is shown in the following table:
for specific exchange rate query, you can check the following website:
for details https://jin10086.github.io/etherconVerter/
both gas price and ether price are freely regulated by the market, but they are different in that the price of ether fluctuates according to the market situation, while the price of gas is determined by miners, If the price of fuel falls below the miners' minimum requirements, the miners refuse to process the deal. The separation of gas and Ethereum can protect the system from the possible fluctuation with the rapid change of Ethereum price
generally speaking, most miners will choose to give priority to their interests. When dealing with the transaction, they will arrange according to the gas price from high to low, and give priority to those with high gas price. If you are in a hurry to trade, you need to raise the gas price so that the miners can see you earlier; If you are not in a hurry, you just need to set a gas price, which is above the bottom line of gas price set by miners
How is gas obtainedin fact, gas is the ether coin purchased from the miner. The ether coin in the user's own account can purchase gas from the miner, and the Ethereum client will automatically purchase gas with Ethereum according to the specified maximum transaction expenditure limit
Where did gas go in the endfor each transaction, the initiator of the transaction must set the gas limit and gas price. Different operations will proce different gas costs. When the gas is used up, the miner will stop executing, and the gas used will be used as a reward to the miner. This will involve several situations:
the first situation is that if there is a surplus gas, the miner will stop executing, Then the remaining gas will be returned to the transaction initiator or the creator of the smart contract. For example, if I send an Ethereum to Yiyi, the gas limit I set is 50000, and the gas normally consumed is 21000, then the remaining 29000 that has not been consumed will be returned to me
in the second case, if the gas limit I set is too low, or the Ethereum in my account is not enough to pay for my gas consumption, then the transaction will be cancelled e to insufficient gas, and the gas used for calculation will not be returned to my account
in the third case, if the transaction fails, I have to pay the handling charge for the occupied computing resources
How to set a reasonable gas pricebefore each transaction, you can query this website to confirm the gas price to be set: https://ethGasstation.info/ To sum up, in this article, we mainly introce the gas and service charge of Ethereum: gas is equivalent to fuel oil. When you process transactions on Ethereum virtual machine, you will consume computing resources, that is, gas. On Ethereum, the service charge you pay is equal to gasprice multiplied by gasused, that is, the unit price of gas multiplied by the total amount of gas consumed. The complexity of the operation is different, and the cost of gas is also different. When the gas is used up, the miner will stop executing, and the gas used will be used as a reward to the miner. The miner will give priority to the trader with higher gas price
on cryptokitties, you can buy virtual cats. By 17:00 Beijing time on December 6, 2017, the cheapest kitten had reached 0.037eth. Equivalent to 110 yuan per piece
then the kittens have some opinions about the generation. For example, Gen 12 indicates that it is the 12th generation, while Gen 20 indicates that it is the 20th generation. Generally speaking, the smaller the algebra, the more valuable it is. And you can make your kittens slap each other. For example, a Gen 1 kitten and a Gen 1 kitten will give birth to a Gen 2 kitten
you can sell your kittens and their offspring for money
but what if you don't have two kittens? If you only buy one kitten, you can use your kitten to have fun with other people's high-quality kittens. The fee also depends on the kittens (to be honest, this mechanism is very evil, similar to... Borrowing chickens to have children?) The quality of the proct. If your kitten is of high quality, you can also use your kitten to mate other people's kittens, and then you get Ethereum income
but kittens also have special fertility rates
every time a kitten gives birth to one generation, it will have a certain cooling time, and it can't regenerate kittens within the cooling time,
the cooling time is divided into several grades
fast: 1 minute
swift: 2 – 5 minutes
snappy: 10 – 30 minutes
brisk: 1 – 2 minutes
plodding: 4 – 8 minutes
slow: 16 – 24 minutes
sluggi Sh (lazy kitten): 2 – 4 days
catatonic (nervous kitten): 1 week
so the price of your cat also depends on its birth time
and generally speaking, the larger the algebra is, the higher the gen value is, and the slower their growth rate is
but I want to make complaints about it because CryptoKitties is too hot! Ethereum network has a little bit of a crash, the official recommended that every time you buy a cat, the minimum handling charge is 21000. 400000 fuel = 0.01eth. However, it is irritating that I raised the procere to 1.6 million fuel, which is 0.04, and Ethereum still failed. 0.04 Ethereum. That's more than 120 yuan. It's too dark.
Compared with bitcoin's prestige, although the rise of the value of ether currency is more terrible than that at the beginning of the year, its reputation and market scale are still inferior to bitcoin. Peter szilagyi, director of bitcoin development team, brought the data of Ethernet network nodes to Google Earth to tell you clearly how Ethernet will dominate the digital currency world in the future
in the two years since its birth, Ethereum has rapidly occupied the rich countries or regions in the world
if we compare the richer regions in the world, such as Europe and North America, with the poorer regions in Asia and South America, & quot; In an email interview with CNBC, szilagyi wrote: & lt; You will find that the density of active nodes is related to the transportation convenience, instrialization and affluence of the region. In my opinion, this correlation is e to the relatively concentrated resources required for the full operation of Ethereum& rdquo;