eth1227
A. his[ ]name is kan robert
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
如果對您有幫助，請記得採納為滿意答案，謝謝！祝您生活愉快！
vaela
B. 誰有羅賓漢的英文資料呀
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
C. 以太坊多少錢一個
現在以太坊價格在200多美金左右，以太坊是僅次於比特幣的數字貨幣，具有很好的投資價值，今後的價格絕對會大漲
D. 求羅賓漢中的主要人物英文名
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
抱歉我找不到人物名了，不過簡介你還滿意吧？
E. 羅賓漢姓什麼原名叫什麼最好有英文拼寫
在英國的傳說中，羅賓漢的名字是極為響亮的。關於他的故事並非史實，不過英雄通常都是誇張或者虛構出來的。我了解羅賓漢的故事還是從小時候看的小人書里，印象已經很模糊。他的傳奇有很多種說法，大致是說在12～13世紀著名的十字軍東征的時候，英格蘭的理查王被俘，留在國內的約翰王子趁機篡權，拒絕贖回理查王。而與他狼狽為奸的諾丁漢郡長也趁機強佔了忠心於理查王的羅賓漢家的領地，更試圖染指他的心上人瑪麗安。羅賓漢被迫躲進舍伍德森林，以此為基地，領導一支農民起義軍到處劫富濟貧，最終成功贖回理查王，粉碎了約翰王子等人的陰謀。羅賓漢最突出的就是射箭術高超。據介紹，現在射箭比賽里就有「羅賓漢」這一術語，指射中另一支已中靶心的箭。
也有說是大約公元1190年，英國獅心王理查率領英國軍隊參加十字軍東征，羅賓漢也隨軍前行。可是當戰爭結束，羅賓漢從戰場返回家鄉的時候，發現自己的庄園和財產已經被諾丁漢郡治安官以莫須有的罪名沒收。此時，英國正在被借著獅心王東征而趁機弄權的約翰王子所統治，他的橫征暴斂讓人民苦不堪言。為此，羅賓漢聚集了一幫綠林好漢，憑借著自己的機智和勇敢，帶領大家劫富濟貧，對抗昏君的暴政。
羅賓漢這位傳奇英雄不僅在英國，而且在西方很多國家都廣為人知，是西方人家喻戶曉的傳奇英雄，他的故事也經常出現在電影和電視屏幕上。記得有一首英文歌曲就是加拿大歌手布萊恩·亞當斯演唱的《一切為了你》（EverythingIDo，IDoItForYou）。這首歌是著名影星凱文·科斯特納主演的電影《俠盜羅賓漢》的主題曲。當時，電影拍攝得精彩，歌曲演唱得感人，給我留下非常深刻的印象。
羅賓漢的故事就發生在英國諾丁漢市。諾丁漢是一座擁有著傳奇色彩的古老城市。諾丁漢也是英國歷史最悠久的城市之一，公元6世紀，盎格魯撒克遜人定居在此，9世紀又受到外族的入侵，11世紀為諾曼人所統治。大約700年前，在諾丁漢以北廣闊的舍伍德森林中，有一夥以羅賓漢為首的劫富濟貧的綠林好漢，揭竿而起，反抗諾曼人的壓迫。諾丁漢好像所有景點都是圍繞著羅賓漢這個傳奇人物開設的。這里是羅賓漢的山丘啦，那裡是羅賓漢的泉水、洞穴啦，羅賓漢的箭曾射中這里啦，等等。最令人信服的說法是羅賓漢生於12世紀60年代，其活動主要集中在理查德一世(1189～1199年在位)至約翰王(1199～1216年在位)期間。當時，有多許觸犯了嚴厲法律的逃犯匿藏在森林中。可以想像，在那裡拉起一支勇敢忠義的隊伍是不難的。據說羅賓漢死於1247年11月18日。就在彌留之際他還射出一支箭，人們便在箭所射中的地方埋葬了這位好漢。
說到羅賓漢，就必須說說充滿傳說的森林，舍伍德森林（SherwoodForest），這片森林過去一度佔地很廣，今天卻被開辟出來，城鎮和村莊分布其間。由諾丁漢市向北30公里，有一個埃德溫斯托村，村邊是舍伍德森林中心，在此可欣賞到中世紀森林的耗貌。中心內還設有展館，專門解說羅賓漢的故事。中心附近有一棵巨大的橡樹，傳說中它也扮演了一個角色。據說，羅賓漢與他的夥伴們便是在此樹下邂逅的。是真是假，樹旁的解說牌上自有答案。原來，此橡樹的壽命超過800年，重達32噸。由中心到這棵像樹大約2公里，是由一條步行道連接的。不過，無風不起浪。走在林中，心中會不時湧出過去的那些浪漫故事。除了森林，還有歷史、傳說與藝術的世界，諾丁漢城堡（NottinghamCastle），1068年，威廉王下令在此地修築城堡。據說在挖掘護志河時遇到了砂岩岩層，工程十分艱巨。到了13世紀初葉，約翰王擬定了重建城堡的計劃。工程的總指揮便是諾丁漢郡長菲利普·馬克。據說他是一個殘酷的統治者，因而成為羅賓漢的仇敵。當時，這座城堡也就成了政治、財政、軍隊的中心。17世紀後，卡斯爾伯爵買下了城堡，並在岩石山上建起了公館。1875年，這里再次得以修繕，並作為當地最大的博物館對外開放，直至今日。由滿目青翠的花園登上城堡，便來到卡斯爾博物館。這里展品豐富多樣，非常有趣。此外，城堡大門建於1255年，本世紀又加以修葺，內部成為羅賓漢展室。
羅賓漢的故事就像中國的水滸故事一樣，廣為流傳。
F. 農葯名字都挺復雜的,都有哪些呢
農葯名稱大全
序號
通用名稱
國際通用名稱
(E-ISO)
殺蟲劑
1001
六六六
HCH,BHC
1002
林丹
lindane
1003
滴滴涕
DDT
1004
甲氧滴滴涕
methoxychlor
1005
毒殺芬
camphechlor
1006
艾氏劑
HHDN or aldrin(
含
95%HHDN)
1007
異艾劑
isodrin
1008
狄氏劑
HEOD or dieldrin(
含
>85%HEOD)
1009
異狄氏劑
endrin
1010
七氯
heptachlor
1011
氯丹
chlordane
1012
硫丹
endosulfan
1013
三氯殺蟲酯
plifenate<
建議名
>
1014
丙蟲磷
propaphos<
草案
>
1015
甲基毒蟲畏
dimethylvinphos
1016
敵敵鈣
calvinphos
1017
敵敵畏
dichlorvos
1018
二溴磷
naled
1019
速滅磷
mevinphos
1020
久效磷
monocrotophos
1021
百治磷
dicrotophos
1022
磷胺
phosphamidon
1023
巴毒磷
crotoxyphos
1024
殺蟲畏
tetrachlorvinphos
1025
毒蟲畏
chlorfenvinphos
1026
敵百蟲
trichlorfon
1027
庚烯磷
heptenopos
1028
氯氧磷
chlorethoxyfos
1029
異柳磷
isofenphos
1030
甲基異柳磷
isofenphos_methyl(
中國
)
1031
畜蜱磷
cythioate(
非通用名
)
1032
氯唑磷
isazofos
1033
蟲蟎畏
methacrifos
1034
治螟磷
sulfotep
1035
雙硫磷
temephos
1036
甲基對硫磷
parathion_methyl
1037
對硫磷
parathion
1038
殺螟硫磷
fenitrothion
1039
除線磷
dichlofenthion
1040
倍硫磷
fenthion
1041
異氯磷
dicapthon(
美國昆蟲學會
,
簡
稱
ESA)
1042
皮蠅磷
fenchlorphos
1043
溴硫磷
bromophos
1044
乙基溴硫磷
bromophos_ethyl
1045
碘硫磷
iodfenphos
1046
殺螟睛
cyanophos
1047
豐索磷
fensulfothion
1048
伐滅磷
famphur(ESA)
1049
三唑磷
triazophos
1050
毒死蜱
chlorpyrifos
1051
甲基毒死蜱
chlorpyrifos_methyl
1052
惡唑磷
isoxathion(
草案
)
1053
嘧啶磷
pirimiphos_ethyl
1054
甲基嘧啶磷
pririmiphos_methyl
1055
蟲線磷
thionazin
1056
二嗪磷
diazinon
1057
嘧啶氧磷
pirimioxyphos(
中國
)
1058
蔬果磷
dioxabenzofos(
草案
)
1059
蠅毒磷
coumaphos
1060
喹硫磷
quinalphos
1061
內吸磷
demeton(ESA)
1062
畜蟲磷
coumithoate
1063
吡硫磷
pyrazothion(
非通用名
)
1064
乙嘧硫磷
etrimfos
1065
水胺硫磷
isocarbophos(
非通用名
)
1066
辛硫磷
phoxim
1067
甲基辛硫磷
phoxiom_methyl(
中國
)
1068
氯辛硫磷
chlorphoxim
1069
噠嗪硫磷
pyridaphenthione(JMAF)
1070
毒壤膦
trichloronat
1071
苯硫膦
EPN(ESA)
1072
溴苯膦
leptophos
1073
苯腈膦
cyanofenphos
1074
吡唑硫磷
pyraclofos(
草案
)
1075
甲基吡惡磷
azamethiphos
1076
甲基內吸磷
demeton_S_methyl
1077
甲基乙酯磷
methylacetophos(
非通
用名
)
1078
乙酯磷
acetophos(
非通用名
)
1
應屆生求職季寶典 開啟你的職場征途
簡歷撰寫 筆試真題 面試攻略 專業技能指導 公務員專區 1079
氧樂果
omethoate
1080
果蟲磷
cyanthoate
1081
異亞碸磷
oxydeprofos
1082
亞碸磷
oxydemeton_methyl
1083
蚜滅磷
vamidothion
1084
因毒磷
endothion
1085
滅線磷
ethoprophos
1086
硫線磷
casafos(
草案
)
1087
碸吸磷
demeton_S_methylsulphone
1088
噻唑膦
fosthiazate(
草案
)
1089
丙溴磷
profenofos
1090
田樂磷
demephion
demephion_O(I)
demephion(II) (
英國標准學會
,
簡稱
BSI)
1091
硫丙磷
sulprofos
1092
特丁硫磷
terbufos
1093
地蟲硫膦
fonofos
1094
噻唑硫磷
colophonate(
非通用名
)
1095
乙硫磷
ethion
1096
丙硫磷
prothiofos
1097
甲基乙拌磷
thiometon
1098
甲拌磷
phorate
1099
乙拌磷
disulfoton
1100
碸拌磷
oxydisulfoton
1101
異拌磷
isothioate
1102
氯甲硫磷
chlormephos
1103
三硫磷
carbophenothion
1104
芬硫磷
phenkapton
1105
家蠅磷
acethion
1106
馬拉硫磷
malathion
1107
稻豐散
phenthoate
1108
樂果
dimethoate
1109
益硫磷
ethoate_methyl
1110
發硫磷
prothoate
1111
蘇硫磷
sophamide
1112
賽硫磷
amidithion
1113
茂硫磷
morphothion
1114
滅蚜磷
mecarbam
1115
安硫磷
formothion
1116
滅蚜硫磷
menazon
1117
敵惡磷
dioxathion
1118
亞胺硫磷
phosmet
1119
氯亞胺硫磷
dialifos
1120
伏殺硫磷
phosalone
1121
保棉磷
azinphos_methyl
1122
益棉磷
azinphos_ethyl
1123
殺撲磷
methidathion
1124
四甲磷
mecarphon
1125
丁苯硫磷
fosmethilan(
草案
)
1126
丁硫環磷
fosthietan
1127
八甲磷
schradan
1128
苯線磷
fenamiphos
1129
育畜磷
crufomate
1130
硫環磷
phosfolan
1131
甲基硫環磷
phosfolan_methyl(
中國
)
1132
地胺磷
mephosfolan
1133
甲胺磷
methamidophos
1134
乙醯甲胺磷
acephate
1135
甘氨硫磷
phosglycin(
非通用名
)
1136
胺丙畏
propetamphos
1137
丙胺氟磷
mipafox
1138
甲氟磷
dimefox
1139
丁酯膦
butonate
1140
滅多威
methomyl
1141
涕滅威
aldicarb
1142
久效威
thiofanox
1143
殺線威
oxamyl
1144
害撲威
CPMC(JMAF)
1145
速滅威
metolcarb
1146
滅殺威
xylylcarb(
草案
)
1147
滅除威
XMC(JMAF)
1148
混滅威
dimethacarb(
中國
)
1149
混殺威
trimethacarb
1150
甲硫威
methiocarb
1151
茲克威
mexacarbate
1152
滅害威
aminocarb
1153
除害威
allyxycarb
1154
多殺威
EMPC(JMAF)
1155
乙硫苯威
ethiofencarb
1156
異丙威
isoprocarb
1157
殘殺威
propoxur
1158
猛殺威
promecarb
1159
仲丁威
fenobucarb(
草案
)
1160
畜蟲威
butacarb
1161
合殺威
bufencarb
1162
二氧威
dioxocarb
1163
惡蟲威
bendiocarb
1164
甲萘威
carbaryl
2
1165
克百威
carbofuran
1166
丙硫克百威
benfuracarb(
草案
)
1167
丁硫克百威
carbosulfan(
草案
)
1168
敵蠅威
dimetilan(BSI)
1169
異索威
isolan(
法國
)
1170
吡唑威
Pyrolan(
商品名
)
1171
嘧啶威
Pyramat(
商品名
)
1172
抗蚜威
pirimicarb
1173
地麥威
Dimetan(
商品名
)
1174
涕滅碸威
aldoxycarb
1175
硫雙威
thiodicarb
1176
戊氰威
nitrilacarb
1177
丁酮威
butocarboxim
1178
丁酮碸威
butoxycarboxim
1179
蜱虱威
promacyl(
澳大利亞
)
1180
棉鈴威
alanycarb(
草案
)
1181
苯氧威
fenoxycarb(
草案
)
1182
唑蚜威
triaxamate
1183
呋線威
furathiocarb(
草案
)
1184
除線威
cloethocarb(
草案
)
1185
環線威
Tirpate(
商品名
)
1186
殺螟丹
cartap
1187
殺蟲雙
disosultap(
中國
)
1188
殺蟲單
monosultap(
中國
)
1189
殺蟲環
thiocyclam
1190
殺蟲釘
trithialan(
中國
)
1191
多噻烷
polythialan(
中國
)
1192
殺蟲磺
bensultap
1193
除蟲菊素
pyrethrins
1194
除蟲菊素
I pyrethrin I
1195
除蟲菊素
II pyrethrin II
1196
瓜葉菊素
I cinerin I
1197
瓜葉菊素
II cinerin II
1198
茉酮菊素
I jasmolin I
1199
茉酮菊素
II jasmolin II
1200
喃烯菊酯
japothrins(
商品名
)
1201
環戊烯丙菊酯
terallethrin
1202
烯丙菊酯
allethrin
1203
右旋烯丙菊酯
d_allethrin
1204
富右旋反式烯丙菊酯
rich_d_transallethrin(
中國
)
1205
生物烯丙菊酯
bioallethrin
1206 Es_
生物烯丙菊酯
esbiothirn
1207 S_
生物烯丙菊酯
S_bioallethrin
1208
胺菊酯
tetramethrin
1209
右旋胺菊酯
d-tetramethrin
1210
苄菊酯
dimethirn
1211
苄呋菊酯
resmethrin
1212
生物苄呋菊酯
bioresmethrin
1213
苯醚菊酯
phenothrin
1214
右旋苯醚菊酯
d_phenothrin
1215
右旋烯炔菊酯
empenthrin(
草案
)
1216
炔呋菊酯
furamethrin(JMAF)
1217
甲呋炔菊酯
proparthrin(JMAF)
1218
苄烯菊酯
butethrin(JMAF)
1219
右旋炔丙菊酯
prallethrin(
草案
)
1220
環蟲菊酯
cyclethrin(
非通用名
)
1221
噻恩菊酯
Kadethrin(
非通用名
)
1222
苯醚氰菊酯
cyphenothrin(
草案
)
1223
甲氰菊酯
fenpropathrin
1224
氯菊酯
permethrin
1225
生物氯菊酯
biopermethrin
1226
氯烯炔菊酯
chlorempenthrin(
中國
)
1227
氯氰菊酯
cypermethrin
1228
順式氯氰菊酯
alpha-cypermethrin(
草案
)
1229
高效氯氰菊酯
beta_cypermethrin(
草
案
)
1230
氟氯氰菊酯
cyfluthrin(
草案
)
1231
高效氟氯氰菊酯
beta-cyfluthrin(
草案
)
1232
吡氯氰菊酯
fenpirithrin(
草案
)
1233
戊烯氰氯菊酯
pentmethrin(
中國
)
1234
溴氯氰菊酯
tralocythrin(
非通用名
)
1235
溴氰菊酯
deltamethrin(
草案
)
1236
溴苄呋菊酯
bromethrin(
非通用名
)
1237
四溴菊酯
tralomethrin(
草案
)
1238
聯苯菊酯
bifenthrin(
草案
)
1239
氯氟氰菊酯
cyhalothrin(
草案
)
1240
高效氯氟氰菊酯
lambda-cyhalothrin(
草案
)
1241
七氟菊酯
tefluthrin(
草案
)
1242
氟丙菊酯
acrinathrin(
草案
)
1243
氟氯苯菊酯
flumethrin(
英國
)
1244
四氟苯菊酯
transfluthrin
1245
五氟苯菊酯
fenfluthrin
1246
戊菊酯
valerate(
中國
)
1247
氰戊菊酯
fenvalerate
1248 S_
氰戊菊酯
esfenvalarete
3
G. <<羅賓漢>>的英文簡介(150個詞左右)
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
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Robin Hood
Robin Hood memorial statue in Nottingham.Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. Robin was not a real person who lived, he was a fictional character and still is one. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".[1] Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,[2] but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley (Locksley), who was unjustly deprived of his lands.[3] Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
Contents [hide]
1 Early references
2 Sources
3 Ballads and tales
4 Connections to existing locations
5 List of traditional ballads
6 Popular culture
7 Bibliography
8 Notes
9 See also
10 External links
[edit] Early references
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north.[4] The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."[5] The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".[6]
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:[7]
Then [c.1266] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):[8]
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
Hear undernead dis laitl stean
Lais Robert Earl of Huntingtun
Near arcir der as hie sa geud
An pipl kauld im Robin Heud
Sic utlaws as hi an is men
Vil England nivr si agen.
Obiit 24 Kal Dekembris 1247
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".[9]
[edit] Sources
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development.[10] While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events.[11] The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.[12]
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws.[13] Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.[14]
[edit] Ballads and tales
The earliest surviving Robin Hood text is "Robin Hood and the Monk".[15] This is preserved in Cambridge University manuscript Ff.5.48, which was written shortly after 1450.[16] It contains many of the elements still associated with the legend, from the Nottingham setting to the bitter enmity between Robin and the local sheriff.
Also in manuscript is A Gest of Robyn Hode (c.1475), a collection of separate stories which attempts to unite the episodes into a single continuous narrative.[17] After these come "Robin Hood and the Potter",[18] contained in a manuscript of c.1503. "The Potter" is markedly different in tone from "The Monk": whereas the earlier tale is 'a thriller'[19] the latter is more comic, its plot involving trickery and cunning rather than straightforward force. The difference between the two texts recalls Bower's claim that Robin-tales may be both 'comedies and tragedies'. Other early texts are dramatic pieces such as the fragmentary Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham[20] (c.1472). These are particularly noteworthy as they show Robin's integration into May Day rituals towards the end of the Middle Ages.
It is interesting to compare the character of Robin in these first texts to his later incarnations. While in modern stories Robin Hood typically pursues justice, and the Merry Men are almost a proto-democracy, this sense of generosity and egalitarianism is absent from the medieval and Early Modern sources. Robin is often presented as vengeful and self-interested, meting out barbaric punishments to his own enemies, but rarely fighting on the behalf of others. Nothing is stated about 'giving to the poor', although Robin does make a large loan to an unfortunate knight.[21] Furthermore, even within his band, ideals of equality are generally not in evidence. In the early ballads Robin's men usually kneel before him in strict obedience: in the Gest the king even observes that "His men are more at his byddynge/Then my men be at myn". Their social status, as yeomen, is shown by their weapons; they use swords rather than quarterstaffs. The only character to use a quarterstaff in the early ballads is the potter, and Robin Hood does not take to a staff until the eighteenth century Robin Hood and Little John.[22] And rather than being deprived of his lands by the villainous Sheriff of Nottingham, when an origin for Robin appears, he takes to 'the greenwood' after killing royal foresters for mocking him (see Robin Hood's Progress to Nottingham).
While he is sometimes described as a figure of peasant revolt, the details of his legends do not match this. He is not a peasant but a yeoman, and his tales make no mention of the complaints of the peasants, such as oppressive taxes.[23] He appears not so much as a revolt against societal standards as an embodiment of them, being generous, pious, and courteous, opposed to stingy, worldly, and churlish foes. His tales glorified violence, but did so in a violent era.[24] While he fights with royal officials, his loyalty to the king himself is strong.[25]
Although the term "Merry Men" belongs to a later period, the ballads do name several of Robin's companions.[26] These include Will Scarlet (or Scathlock), Much the Miller's Son, and Little John — who was called "little" as a joke, as he was quite the opposite.[27] Even though the band is regularly described as being over a hundred men, usually only three or four are specified. Some appear only once or twice in a ballad: Will Stutly in Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly and Robin Hood and Little John; David of Doncaster in Robin Hood and the Golden Arrow; Gilbert with the White Hand in A Gest of Robyn Hode; and Arthur a Bland in Robin Hood and the Tanner.[28] Many later adapters developed these characters. Guy of Gisbourne also appeared in the legend at this point, as was another outlaw Richard the Divine who was hired by the sheriff to hunt Robin Hood, and who dies at Robin's hand.[29]
Printed versions of the Robin Hood ballads, generally based on the Gest, appear in the early 16th century, shortly after the introction of printing in England. Later that century Robin is promoted to the level of nobleman: he is styled Earl of Huntington, Robert of Locksley, or Robert Fitz Ooth. In the early ballads, by contrast, he was a member of the yeoman classes, a common freeholder possessing a small landed estate. [30]
In the fifteenth century, Robin Hood became associated with May Day celebrations; people would dress as Robin or as other members of his band for the festivities, a practice that was not engaged in all England, but which lasted until Elizabethean times, and ring the reign of Henry VIII, was briefly popular at court.[31] This often put the figure in the role of a May King, presiding over games and processions, but plays were also performed with the characters in the roles.[32] These plays could be enacted at "church ales", a means by which churches raised funds.[33] A complaint of 1492, brought to the Star Chamber, accuses men of acting riotously by coming to a fair as Robin Hood and his men; the accused defended themselves on the grounds that the practice was a long-standing custom to raise money for churches, and they had not acted riotously but peaceably.[34]
It is from this association that Robin's romantic attachment to Maid Marian (or Marion) stems. The naming of Marian may have come from the French pastoral play of c. 1280, the Jeu de Robin et Marion, although this play is unrelated to the English legends.[35] Both Robin and Marian were certainly associated with May Day festivities in England (as was Friar Tuck), but these were originally two distinct types of performance — Alexander Barclay, writing in c.1500, refers to "some merry fytte of Maid Marian or else of Robin Hood" — but the characters were brought together.[36] Marian did not immediately gain the unquestioned role; in Robin Hood's Birth, Breeding, Valor and Marriage, his sweetheart is 'Clorinda the Queen of the Shepherdesses'.[37] Clorinda survives in some later stories as an alias of Marian..[38]
The first allusions to Robin Hood as stealing from the rich and giving to the poor appear in the 16th century. However, they still play a minor role in the legend; Robin still is prone to waylaying poor men, such as tinkers and beggars.[39]
In the 16th century, Robin Hood is given a specific historical setting. Up until this point there was little interest in exactly when Robin's adventures took place. The original ballads refer at various points to 'King Edward', without stipulating whether this is Edward I, Edward II, or Edward III.[40] Hood may thus have been active at any point between 1272 and 1377. However, ring the 16th century the stories become fixed to the 1190s, the period in which King Richard was absent from his throne, fighting in the crusades.[41] This date is first proposed by John Mair in his Historia Majoris Britanniæ (1512), and gains popular acceptance by the end of the century.
Giving Robin an aristocratic title and female love interest, and placing him in the historical context of the true king's absence, all represent moves to domesticate his legend and reconcile it to ruling powers. In this, his legend is similar to that of King Arthur, which morphed from a dangerous male-centered story to a more comfortable, chivalrous romance under the trobadours serving Eleanor of Aquitaine. From the 16th century on, the legend of Robin Hood is often used to promote the hereditary ruling class, heterosexual romance, and religious piety. The "criminal" element is retained to provide dramatic colour, rather than as a real challenge to convention.[42]
The seventeenth century introced the minstrel Alan-a-Dale. He first appeared in a seventeenth century broadside ballad, and unlike many of the characters thus associated, managed to adhere to the legend.[43] This is also the era in which the character of Robin became fixed as stealing from the rich to give to the poor.[44]
In the 18th century, the stories become even more conservative, and develop a slightly more farcical vein. From this period there are a number of ballads in which Robin is severely "drubbed" by a succession of professionals, including a potter, a tanner, a tinker and a ranger.[45] In fact, the only character who does not get the better of Hood is the luckless Sheriff. Yet even in these ballads Robin is more than a mere simpleton: on the contrary, he often acts with great shrewdness. The tinker, setting out to capture Robin, only manages to fight with him after he has been cheated out of his money and the arrest warrant he is carrying. In Robin Hood's Golden Prize, Robin disguises himself as a friar and cheats two priests out of their cash. Even when Robin is defeated, he usually tricks his foe into letting him sound his horn, summoning the Merry Men to his aid. When his enemies do not fall for this ruse, he persuades them to drink with him instead.
The continued popularity of the Robin Hood tales is attested by a number of literary references. In As You Like It, the exiled ke and his men "live like the old Robin Hood of England", while Ben Jonson proced the (incomplete) masque The Sad Shepheard, or a Tale of Robin Hood[46] as a satire on Puritanism. Somewhat later, the Romantic poet John Keats composed Robin Hood. To A Friend[47] and Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote a play The Foresters, or Robin Hood and Maid Marian,[48] which was presented with incidental music by Sir Arthur Sullivan in 1892. Later still, T. H. White featured Robin and his band in The Sword in the Stone — anachronistically, since the novel's chief theme is the childhood of King Arthur.[49]
The Victorian[50] era generated its own distinct versions of Robin Hood. The traditional tales were often adapted for children, most notably in Howard Pyle's Merry Adventures of Robin Hood. These versions firmly stamp Robin as a staunch philanthropist, a man who takes from the rich to give to the poor. Nevertheless, the adventures are still more local than national in scope: while Richard's participation in the Crusades is mentioned in passing, Robin takes no stand against Prince John, and plays no part in raising the ransom to free Richard. These developments are part of the 20th century Robin Hood myth. The idea of Robin Hood as a high-minded Saxon fighting Norman Lords also originates in the 19th century. The most notable contributions to this idea of Robin are Thierry's Histoire de la Conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (1825), and Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe (1819). In this last work in particular, the modern Robin Hoo