eth1227
A. his[ ]name is kan robert
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
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B. 谁有罗宾汉的英文资料呀
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
C. 以太坊多少钱一个
现在以太坊价格在200多美金左右，以太坊是仅次于比特币的数字货币，具有很好的投资价值，今后的价格绝对会大涨
D. 求罗宾汉中的主要人物英文名
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
抱歉我找不到人物名了，不过简介你还满意吧？
E. 罗宾汉姓什么原名叫什么最好有英文拼写
在英国的传说中，罗宾汉的名字是极为响亮的。关于他的故事并非史实，不过英雄通常都是夸张或者虚构出来的。我了解罗宾汉的故事还是从小时候看的小人书里，印象已经很模糊。他的传奇有很多种说法，大致是说在12～13世纪著名的十字军东征的时候，英格兰的理查王被俘，留在国内的约翰王子趁机篡权，拒绝赎回理查王。而与他狼狈为奸的诺丁汉郡长也趁机强占了忠心于理查王的罗宾汉家的领地，更试图染指他的心上人玛丽安。罗宾汉被迫躲进舍伍德森林，以此为基地，领导一支农民起义军到处劫富济贫，最终成功赎回理查王，粉碎了约翰王子等人的阴谋。罗宾汉最突出的就是射箭术高超。据介绍，现在射箭比赛里就有“罗宾汉”这一术语，指射中另一支已中靶心的箭。
也有说是大约公元1190年，英国狮心王理查率领英国军队参加十字军东征，罗宾汉也随军前行。可是当战争结束，罗宾汉从战场返回家乡的时候，发现自己的庄园和财产已经被诺丁汉郡治安官以莫须有的罪名没收。此时，英国正在被借着狮心王东征而趁机弄权的约翰王子所统治，他的横征暴敛让人民苦不堪言。为此，罗宾汉聚集了一帮绿林好汉，凭借着自己的机智和勇敢，带领大家劫富济贫，对抗昏君的暴政。
罗宾汉这位传奇英雄不仅在英国，而且在西方很多国家都广为人知，是西方人家喻户晓的传奇英雄，他的故事也经常出现在电影和电视屏幕上。记得有一首英文歌曲就是加拿大歌手布莱恩·亚当斯演唱的《一切为了你》（EverythingIDo，IDoItForYou）。这首歌是著名影星凯文·科斯特纳主演的电影《侠盗罗宾汉》的主题曲。当时，电影拍摄得精彩，歌曲演唱得感人，给我留下非常深刻的印象。
罗宾汉的故事就发生在英国诺丁汉市。诺丁汉是一座拥有着传奇色彩的古老城市。诺丁汉也是英国历史最悠久的城市之一，公元6世纪，盎格鲁撒克逊人定居在此，9世纪又受到外族的入侵，11世纪为诺曼人所统治。大约700年前，在诺丁汉以北广阔的舍伍德森林中，有一伙以罗宾汉为首的劫富济贫的绿林好汉，揭竿而起，反抗诺曼人的压迫。诺丁汉好像所有景点都是围绕着罗宾汉这个传奇人物开设的。这里是罗宾汉的山丘啦，那里是罗宾汉的泉水、洞穴啦，罗宾汉的箭曾射中这里啦，等等。最令人信服的说法是罗宾汉生于12世纪60年代，其活动主要集中在理查德一世(1189～1199年在位)至约翰王(1199～1216年在位)期间。当时，有多许触犯了严厉法律的逃犯匿藏在森林中。可以想象，在那里拉起一支勇敢忠义的队伍是不难的。据说罗宾汉死于1247年11月18日。就在弥留之际他还射出一支箭，人们便在箭所射中的地方埋葬了这位好汉。
说到罗宾汉，就必须说说充满传说的森林，舍伍德森林（SherwoodForest），这片森林过去一度占地很广，今天却被开辟出来，城镇和村庄分布其间。由诺丁汉市向北30公里，有一个埃德温斯托村，村边是舍伍德森林中心，在此可欣赏到中世纪森林的耗貌。中心内还设有展馆，专门解说罗宾汉的故事。中心附近有一棵巨大的橡树，传说中它也扮演了一个角色。据说，罗宾汉与他的伙伴们便是在此树下邂逅的。是真是假，树旁的解说牌上自有答案。原来，此橡树的寿命超过800年，重达32吨。由中心到这棵像树大约2公里，是由一条步行道连接的。不过，无风不起浪。走在林中，心中会不时涌出过去的那些浪漫故事。除了森林，还有历史、传说与艺术的世界，诺丁汉城堡（NottinghamCastle），1068年，威廉王下令在此地修筑城堡。据说在挖掘护志河时遇到了砂岩岩层，工程十分艰巨。到了13世纪初叶，约翰王拟定了重建城堡的计划。工程的总指挥便是诺丁汉郡长菲利普·马克。据说他是一个残酷的统治者，因而成为罗宾汉的仇敌。当时，这座城堡也就成了政治、财政、军队的中心。17世纪后，卡斯尔伯爵买下了城堡，并在岩石山上建起了公馆。1875年，这里再次得以修缮，并作为当地最大的博物馆对外开放，直至今日。由满目青翠的花园登上城堡，便来到卡斯尔博物馆。这里展品丰富多样，非常有趣。此外，城堡大门建于1255年，本世纪又加以修葺，内部成为罗宾汉展室。
罗宾汉的故事就像中国的水浒故事一样，广为流传。
F. 农药名字都挺复杂的,都有哪些呢
农药名称大全
序号
通用名称
国际通用名称
(E-ISO)
杀虫剂
1001
六六六
HCH,BHC
1002
林丹
lindane
1003
滴滴涕
DDT
1004
甲氧滴滴涕
methoxychlor
1005
毒杀芬
camphechlor
1006
艾氏剂
HHDN or aldrin(
含
95%HHDN)
1007
异艾剂
isodrin
1008
狄氏剂
HEOD or dieldrin(
含
>85%HEOD)
1009
异狄氏剂
endrin
1010
七氯
heptachlor
1011
氯丹
chlordane
1012
硫丹
endosulfan
1013
三氯杀虫酯
plifenate<
建议名
>
1014
丙虫磷
propaphos<
草案
>
1015
甲基毒虫畏
dimethylvinphos
1016
敌敌钙
calvinphos
1017
敌敌畏
dichlorvos
1018
二溴磷
naled
1019
速灭磷
mevinphos
1020
久效磷
monocrotophos
1021
百治磷
dicrotophos
1022
磷胺
phosphamidon
1023
巴毒磷
crotoxyphos
1024
杀虫畏
tetrachlorvinphos
1025
毒虫畏
chlorfenvinphos
1026
敌百虫
trichlorfon
1027
庚烯磷
heptenopos
1028
氯氧磷
chlorethoxyfos
1029
异柳磷
isofenphos
1030
甲基异柳磷
isofenphos_methyl(
中国
)
1031
畜蜱磷
cythioate(
非通用名
)
1032
氯唑磷
isazofos
1033
虫螨畏
methacrifos
1034
治螟磷
sulfotep
1035
双硫磷
temephos
1036
甲基对硫磷
parathion_methyl
1037
对硫磷
parathion
1038
杀螟硫磷
fenitrothion
1039
除线磷
dichlofenthion
1040
倍硫磷
fenthion
1041
异氯磷
dicapthon(
美国昆虫学会
,
简
称
ESA)
1042
皮蝇磷
fenchlorphos
1043
溴硫磷
bromophos
1044
乙基溴硫磷
bromophos_ethyl
1045
碘硫磷
iodfenphos
1046
杀螟睛
cyanophos
1047
丰索磷
fensulfothion
1048
伐灭磷
famphur(ESA)
1049
三唑磷
triazophos
1050
毒死蜱
chlorpyrifos
1051
甲基毒死蜱
chlorpyrifos_methyl
1052
恶唑磷
isoxathion(
草案
)
1053
嘧啶磷
pirimiphos_ethyl
1054
甲基嘧啶磷
pririmiphos_methyl
1055
虫线磷
thionazin
1056
二嗪磷
diazinon
1057
嘧啶氧磷
pirimioxyphos(
中国
)
1058
蔬果磷
dioxabenzofos(
草案
)
1059
蝇毒磷
coumaphos
1060
喹硫磷
quinalphos
1061
内吸磷
demeton(ESA)
1062
畜虫磷
coumithoate
1063
吡硫磷
pyrazothion(
非通用名
)
1064
乙嘧硫磷
etrimfos
1065
水胺硫磷
isocarbophos(
非通用名
)
1066
辛硫磷
phoxim
1067
甲基辛硫磷
phoxiom_methyl(
中国
)
1068
氯辛硫磷
chlorphoxim
1069
哒嗪硫磷
pyridaphenthione(JMAF)
1070
毒壤膦
trichloronat
1071
苯硫膦
EPN(ESA)
1072
溴苯膦
leptophos
1073
苯腈膦
cyanofenphos
1074
吡唑硫磷
pyraclofos(
草案
)
1075
甲基吡恶磷
azamethiphos
1076
甲基内吸磷
demeton_S_methyl
1077
甲基乙酯磷
methylacetophos(
非通
用名
)
1078
乙酯磷
acetophos(
非通用名
)
1
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简历撰写 笔试真题 面试攻略 专业技能指导 公务员专区 1079
氧乐果
omethoate
1080
果虫磷
cyanthoate
1081
异亚砜磷
oxydeprofos
1082
亚砜磷
oxydemeton_methyl
1083
蚜灭磷
vamidothion
1084
因毒磷
endothion
1085
灭线磷
ethoprophos
1086
硫线磷
casafos(
草案
)
1087
砜吸磷
demeton_S_methylsulphone
1088
噻唑膦
fosthiazate(
草案
)
1089
丙溴磷
profenofos
1090
田乐磷
demephion
demephion_O(I)
demephion(II) (
英国标准学会
,
简称
BSI)
1091
硫丙磷
sulprofos
1092
特丁硫磷
terbufos
1093
地虫硫膦
fonofos
1094
噻唑硫磷
colophonate(
非通用名
)
1095
乙硫磷
ethion
1096
丙硫磷
prothiofos
1097
甲基乙拌磷
thiometon
1098
甲拌磷
phorate
1099
乙拌磷
disulfoton
1100
砜拌磷
oxydisulfoton
1101
异拌磷
isothioate
1102
氯甲硫磷
chlormephos
1103
三硫磷
carbophenothion
1104
芬硫磷
phenkapton
1105
家蝇磷
acethion
1106
马拉硫磷
malathion
1107
稻丰散
phenthoate
1108
乐果
dimethoate
1109
益硫磷
ethoate_methyl
1110
发硫磷
prothoate
1111
苏硫磷
sophamide
1112
赛硫磷
amidithion
1113
茂硫磷
morphothion
1114
灭蚜磷
mecarbam
1115
安硫磷
formothion
1116
灭蚜硫磷
menazon
1117
敌恶磷
dioxathion
1118
亚胺硫磷
phosmet
1119
氯亚胺硫磷
dialifos
1120
伏杀硫磷
phosalone
1121
保棉磷
azinphos_methyl
1122
益棉磷
azinphos_ethyl
1123
杀扑磷
methidathion
1124
四甲磷
mecarphon
1125
丁苯硫磷
fosmethilan(
草案
)
1126
丁硫环磷
fosthietan
1127
八甲磷
schradan
1128
苯线磷
fenamiphos
1129
育畜磷
crufomate
1130
硫环磷
phosfolan
1131
甲基硫环磷
phosfolan_methyl(
中国
)
1132
地胺磷
mephosfolan
1133
甲胺磷
methamidophos
1134
乙酰甲胺磷
acephate
1135
甘氨硫磷
phosglycin(
非通用名
)
1136
胺丙畏
propetamphos
1137
丙胺氟磷
mipafox
1138
甲氟磷
dimefox
1139
丁酯膦
butonate
1140
灭多威
methomyl
1141
涕灭威
aldicarb
1142
久效威
thiofanox
1143
杀线威
oxamyl
1144
害扑威
CPMC(JMAF)
1145
速灭威
metolcarb
1146
灭杀威
xylylcarb(
草案
)
1147
灭除威
XMC(JMAF)
1148
混灭威
dimethacarb(
中国
)
1149
混杀威
trimethacarb
1150
甲硫威
methiocarb
1151
兹克威
mexacarbate
1152
灭害威
aminocarb
1153
除害威
allyxycarb
1154
多杀威
EMPC(JMAF)
1155
乙硫苯威
ethiofencarb
1156
异丙威
isoprocarb
1157
残杀威
propoxur
1158
猛杀威
promecarb
1159
仲丁威
fenobucarb(
草案
)
1160
畜虫威
butacarb
1161
合杀威
bufencarb
1162
二氧威
dioxocarb
1163
恶虫威
bendiocarb
1164
甲萘威
carbaryl
2
1165
克百威
carbofuran
1166
丙硫克百威
benfuracarb(
草案
)
1167
丁硫克百威
carbosulfan(
草案
)
1168
敌蝇威
dimetilan(BSI)
1169
异索威
isolan(
法国
)
1170
吡唑威
Pyrolan(
商品名
)
1171
嘧啶威
Pyramat(
商品名
)
1172
抗蚜威
pirimicarb
1173
地麦威
Dimetan(
商品名
)
1174
涕灭砜威
aldoxycarb
1175
硫双威
thiodicarb
1176
戊氰威
nitrilacarb
1177
丁酮威
butocarboxim
1178
丁酮砜威
butoxycarboxim
1179
蜱虱威
promacyl(
澳大利亚
)
1180
棉铃威
alanycarb(
草案
)
1181
苯氧威
fenoxycarb(
草案
)
1182
唑蚜威
triaxamate
1183
呋线威
furathiocarb(
草案
)
1184
除线威
cloethocarb(
草案
)
1185
环线威
Tirpate(
商品名
)
1186
杀螟丹
cartap
1187
杀虫双
disosultap(
中国
)
1188
杀虫单
monosultap(
中国
)
1189
杀虫环
thiocyclam
1190
杀虫钉
trithialan(
中国
)
1191
多噻烷
polythialan(
中国
)
1192
杀虫磺
bensultap
1193
除虫菊素
pyrethrins
1194
除虫菊素
I pyrethrin I
1195
除虫菊素
II pyrethrin II
1196
瓜叶菊素
I cinerin I
1197
瓜叶菊素
II cinerin II
1198
茉酮菊素
I jasmolin I
1199
茉酮菊素
II jasmolin II
1200
喃烯菊酯
japothrins(
商品名
)
1201
环戊烯丙菊酯
terallethrin
1202
烯丙菊酯
allethrin
1203
右旋烯丙菊酯
d_allethrin
1204
富右旋反式烯丙菊酯
rich_d_transallethrin(
中国
)
1205
生物烯丙菊酯
bioallethrin
1206 Es_
生物烯丙菊酯
esbiothirn
1207 S_
生物烯丙菊酯
S_bioallethrin
1208
胺菊酯
tetramethrin
1209
右旋胺菊酯
d-tetramethrin
1210
苄菊酯
dimethirn
1211
苄呋菊酯
resmethrin
1212
生物苄呋菊酯
bioresmethrin
1213
苯醚菊酯
phenothrin
1214
右旋苯醚菊酯
d_phenothrin
1215
右旋烯炔菊酯
empenthrin(
草案
)
1216
炔呋菊酯
furamethrin(JMAF)
1217
甲呋炔菊酯
proparthrin(JMAF)
1218
苄烯菊酯
butethrin(JMAF)
1219
右旋炔丙菊酯
prallethrin(
草案
)
1220
环虫菊酯
cyclethrin(
非通用名
)
1221
噻恩菊酯
Kadethrin(
非通用名
)
1222
苯醚氰菊酯
cyphenothrin(
草案
)
1223
甲氰菊酯
fenpropathrin
1224
氯菊酯
permethrin
1225
生物氯菊酯
biopermethrin
1226
氯烯炔菊酯
chlorempenthrin(
中国
)
1227
氯氰菊酯
cypermethrin
1228
顺式氯氰菊酯
alpha-cypermethrin(
草案
)
1229
高效氯氰菊酯
beta_cypermethrin(
草
案
)
1230
氟氯氰菊酯
cyfluthrin(
草案
)
1231
高效氟氯氰菊酯
beta-cyfluthrin(
草案
)
1232
吡氯氰菊酯
fenpirithrin(
草案
)
1233
戊烯氰氯菊酯
pentmethrin(
中国
)
1234
溴氯氰菊酯
tralocythrin(
非通用名
)
1235
溴氰菊酯
deltamethrin(
草案
)
1236
溴苄呋菊酯
bromethrin(
非通用名
)
1237
四溴菊酯
tralomethrin(
草案
)
1238
联苯菊酯
bifenthrin(
草案
)
1239
氯氟氰菊酯
cyhalothrin(
草案
)
1240
高效氯氟氰菊酯
lambda-cyhalothrin(
草案
)
1241
七氟菊酯
tefluthrin(
草案
)
1242
氟丙菊酯
acrinathrin(
草案
)
1243
氟氯苯菊酯
flumethrin(
英国
)
1244
四氟苯菊酯
transfluthrin
1245
五氟苯菊酯
fenfluthrin
1246
戊菊酯
valerate(
中国
)
1247
氰戊菊酯
fenvalerate
1248 S_
氰戊菊酯
esfenvalarete
3
G. <<罗宾汉>>的英文简介(150个词左右)
Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley, who was unjustly deprived of his lands.Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north. The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:
Then [c.1266 ] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development. While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events. The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws. Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.
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Robin Hood
Robin Hood memorial statue in Nottingham.Robin Hood is the archetypal English folk hero; a courteous, pious and swashbuckling outlaw of the medieval era who, in modern versions of the legend, is famous for robbing the rich to feed the poor and fighting against injustice and tyranny. Robin was not a real person who lived, he was a fictional character and still is one. He operates with his "seven score" (140 strong) group of fellow outlawed yeomen – called his "Merry Men".[1] Robin Hood and his band are usually associated with Sherwood Forest, Nottinghamshire. He has been the subject of numerous movies, books, comics and plays.
In many stories Robin's nemesis is the Sheriff of Nottingham. In the oldest legends, this is merely because a sheriff is an outlaw's natural enemy,[2] but in later versions, the despotic sheriff gravely abuses his position, appropriating land, levying intolerable taxation, and unfairly persecuting the poor. In some tales the antagonist is Prince John, based on John of England, seen as the unjust usurper of his pious brother Richard. In the oldest versions surviving, Robin Hood is a yeoman, but in some versions he is said to have been a nobleman, the earl of Loxley (Locksley), who was unjustly deprived of his lands.[3] Sometimes he has served in the crusades, returning to England to find his lands pillaged by the dastardly sheriff. In some tales he is the champion of the people, fighting against corrupt officials and the oppressive order that protects them, while in others he is an arrogant and headstrong rebel, who delights in bloodshed, cruelly slaughtering and beheading his victims.
In point of fact, Robin Hood stories are different in every period of their history. Robin himself is continually reshaped and redrawn, made to exemplify whatever values are deemed important by the storyteller at the time. The figure is less a personage and more of an amalgam of the various ideas his "life" has been structured to support.
Contents [hide]
1 Early references
2 Sources
3 Ballads and tales
4 Connections to existing locations
5 List of traditional ballads
6 Popular culture
7 Bibliography
8 Notes
9 See also
10 External links
[edit] Early references
From 1227 onwards the names 'Robinhood', 'Robehod' or 'Hobbehod' occur in the rolls of several English justices. The majority of these references date from the late thirteenth century: between 1261 and 1300 there are at least eight references to 'Rabunhod' in various regions across England, from Berkshire in the south to York in the north.[4] The term seems to be applied as a form of shorthand to any fugitive or outlaw. Even at this early stage, the name Robin Hood denotes an archetypal criminal. This usage continues throughout the medieval period. In a petition presented to Parliament in 1439, the name is again used to describe an itinerant felon. The petition cites one Piers Venables of Aston, Derbyshire, "who having no liflode, ne sufficeante of goodes, gadered and assembled unto him many misdoers, beynge of his clothynge, and, in manere of insurrection, wente into the wodes in that countrie, like as it hadde be Robyn Hude and his meyne."[5] The name is still used to describe sedition and treachery in 1605, when Guy Fawkes and his associates are branded "Robin Hoods" by Robert Cecil.
The first allusion to a literary tradition of Robin Hood tales occurs in William Langland's Piers Plowman (c.1362–c.1386) in which Sloth, the lazy priest, confesses: "I kan [know] not parfitly [perfectly] my Paternoster as the preest it singeth,/ But I kan rymes of Robyn Hood".[6]
The first mention of a quasi-historical Robin Hood is given in Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Chronicle, written about 1420. The following lines occur with little contextualisation under the year 1283:
Lytil Jhon and Robyne Hude
Wayth-men ware commendyd gude
In Yngil-wode and Barnysdale
Thai oysyd all this tyme thare trawale.
The next notice is a statement in the Scotichronicon, composed by John Forn between 1377 and 1384, and revised by his pupil Walter Bower in about 1440. Among Bower's many interpolations is a passage which directly refers to Robin. It is inserted after Forn's account of the defeat of Simon de Montfort and the punishment of his adherents. Robin is in fact turned into a fighter for de Montfort's cause, one of his 'disinherited' followers:[7]
Then [c.1266] arose the famous murderer, Robert Hood, as well as Little John, together with their accomplices from among the disinherited, whom the foolish populace are so inordinately fond of celebrating both in tragedies and comedies, and about whom they are delighted to hear the jesters and minstrels sing above all other ballads.
Despite Bower's scorn, and demotion of Robin to a savage 'murderer', his account is followed by a brief tale in which Robin becomes a symbol of piety, gaining a decisive victory after hearing the Mass. Another interesting, although much later, reference is provided by Thomas Gale, Dean of York (c.1635–1702):[8]
[Robin Hood's] death is stated by Ritson to have taken place on the 18th of November, 1247, about the eighty-seventh year of his age; but according to the following inscription found among the papers of the Dean of York…the death occurred a month later. In this inscription, which bears evidence of high antiquity, Robin Hood is described as Earl of Huntington — his claim to which title has been as hotly contested as any disputed peerage upon record.
Hear undernead dis laitl stean
Lais Robert Earl of Huntingtun
Near arcir der as hie sa geud
An pipl kauld im Robin Heud
Sic utlaws as hi an is men
Vil England nivr si agen.
Obiit 24 Kal Dekembris 1247
This inscription also appears on a grave in the grounds of Kirklees Priory near Kirklees Hall (see below). Despite appearances, and the author's assurance of 'high antiquity', there is little reason to give the stone any credence. It certainly cannot date from the 13th century; notwithstanding the implausibility of a 13th century funeral monument being composed in English, the language of the inscription is highly suspect. Its orthography does not correspond to the written forms of Middle English at all: there are no inflected '—e's, the plural accusative pronoun 'hi' is used as a singular nominative, and the singular present indicative verb 'lais' is formed without the Middle English '—th' ending. Overall, the epitaph more closely resembles modern English written in a deliberately 'archaic' style. Furthermore, the reference to Huntingdon is anachronistic: the first recorded mention of the title in the context of Robin Hood occurs in the 1598 play The Downfall of Robert, Earl of Huntington by Anthony Munday. The monument can only be a 17th century forgery.
Therefore, even in the earliest records, Robin is already largely fictional. The Gale note is literally a fiction. The medieval texts do not refer to him directly, but mediate their allusions through a body of accounts and reports: for Langland Robin exists principally in "rimes", for Bower "comedies and tragedies", while for Wyntoun he is "commendyd gude". Even in a legal context, where one would expect to find verifiable references to Robin, he is primarily a symbol, a generalised outlaw-figure rather than an indivial. Consequently, in the medieval period itself, Robin Hood already belongs more to literature than to history. In fact, in an anonymous carol of c.1450, he is treated in precisely this manner — as a joke, a figure that the audience will instantly recognise as imaginary: "He that made this songe full good,/ Came of the northe and the sothern blode,/ And somewhat kyne to Robyn Hode".[9]
[edit] Sources
On the other hand, even though clearly fictitious, Robin does not appear to have stemmed from mythology or folklore. While there are occasional efforts to trace him to fairies (such as Puck under the alias "Robin Goodfellow") or other mythological origins, good evidence for this has not been found, and when Robin Hood has been connected to such folklore, it is a later development.[10] While Robin Hood and his men often show improbable skill in archery, swordplay, and disguise, they are no more exaggerated than those characters in other ballads, such as Kinmont Willie, which were based on historical events.[11] The origin of the legend appears to have stemmed from actual outlaws, or from tales of outlaws, such as Hereward the Wake, Eustace the Monk, and Fulk FitzWarin.[12]
There are many analogues for various Robin Hood tales, featuring both historical and fictitious outlaws. Hereward appears in a ballad much like Robin Hood and the Potter, and as the Hereward ballad is the older, it appears to be the source. The ballad Adam Bell, Clym of the Cloughe and Wyllyam of Cloudeslee runs parallel to Robin Hood and the Monk, but it is not clear whether either one is the source for the other, or whether they merely show that such tales were told of outlaws.[13] Some early Robin Hood stories appear to be unique, such as the story where Robin gives a knight, generally called Richard at the Lee, money to pay off his mortgage to an abbot, but this may merely indicate that no parallels have survived.[14]
[edit] Ballads and tales
The earliest surviving Robin Hood text is "Robin Hood and the Monk".[15] This is preserved in Cambridge University manuscript Ff.5.48, which was written shortly after 1450.[16] It contains many of the elements still associated with the legend, from the Nottingham setting to the bitter enmity between Robin and the local sheriff.
Also in manuscript is A Gest of Robyn Hode (c.1475), a collection of separate stories which attempts to unite the episodes into a single continuous narrative.[17] After these come "Robin Hood and the Potter",[18] contained in a manuscript of c.1503. "The Potter" is markedly different in tone from "The Monk": whereas the earlier tale is 'a thriller'[19] the latter is more comic, its plot involving trickery and cunning rather than straightforward force. The difference between the two texts recalls Bower's claim that Robin-tales may be both 'comedies and tragedies'. Other early texts are dramatic pieces such as the fragmentary Robyn Hod and the Shryff off Notyngham[20] (c.1472). These are particularly noteworthy as they show Robin's integration into May Day rituals towards the end of the Middle Ages.
It is interesting to compare the character of Robin in these first texts to his later incarnations. While in modern stories Robin Hood typically pursues justice, and the Merry Men are almost a proto-democracy, this sense of generosity and egalitarianism is absent from the medieval and Early Modern sources. Robin is often presented as vengeful and self-interested, meting out barbaric punishments to his own enemies, but rarely fighting on the behalf of others. Nothing is stated about 'giving to the poor', although Robin does make a large loan to an unfortunate knight.[21] Furthermore, even within his band, ideals of equality are generally not in evidence. In the early ballads Robin's men usually kneel before him in strict obedience: in the Gest the king even observes that "His men are more at his byddynge/Then my men be at myn". Their social status, as yeomen, is shown by their weapons; they use swords rather than quarterstaffs. The only character to use a quarterstaff in the early ballads is the potter, and Robin Hood does not take to a staff until the eighteenth century Robin Hood and Little John.[22] And rather than being deprived of his lands by the villainous Sheriff of Nottingham, when an origin for Robin appears, he takes to 'the greenwood' after killing royal foresters for mocking him (see Robin Hood's Progress to Nottingham).
While he is sometimes described as a figure of peasant revolt, the details of his legends do not match this. He is not a peasant but a yeoman, and his tales make no mention of the complaints of the peasants, such as oppressive taxes.[23] He appears not so much as a revolt against societal standards as an embodiment of them, being generous, pious, and courteous, opposed to stingy, worldly, and churlish foes. His tales glorified violence, but did so in a violent era.[24] While he fights with royal officials, his loyalty to the king himself is strong.[25]
Although the term "Merry Men" belongs to a later period, the ballads do name several of Robin's companions.[26] These include Will Scarlet (or Scathlock), Much the Miller's Son, and Little John — who was called "little" as a joke, as he was quite the opposite.[27] Even though the band is regularly described as being over a hundred men, usually only three or four are specified. Some appear only once or twice in a ballad: Will Stutly in Robin Hood Rescuing Will Stutly and Robin Hood and Little John; David of Doncaster in Robin Hood and the Golden Arrow; Gilbert with the White Hand in A Gest of Robyn Hode; and Arthur a Bland in Robin Hood and the Tanner.[28] Many later adapters developed these characters. Guy of Gisbourne also appeared in the legend at this point, as was another outlaw Richard the Divine who was hired by the sheriff to hunt Robin Hood, and who dies at Robin's hand.[29]
Printed versions of the Robin Hood ballads, generally based on the Gest, appear in the early 16th century, shortly after the introction of printing in England. Later that century Robin is promoted to the level of nobleman: he is styled Earl of Huntington, Robert of Locksley, or Robert Fitz Ooth. In the early ballads, by contrast, he was a member of the yeoman classes, a common freeholder possessing a small landed estate. [30]
In the fifteenth century, Robin Hood became associated with May Day celebrations; people would dress as Robin or as other members of his band for the festivities, a practice that was not engaged in all England, but which lasted until Elizabethean times, and ring the reign of Henry VIII, was briefly popular at court.[31] This often put the figure in the role of a May King, presiding over games and processions, but plays were also performed with the characters in the roles.[32] These plays could be enacted at "church ales", a means by which churches raised funds.[33] A complaint of 1492, brought to the Star Chamber, accuses men of acting riotously by coming to a fair as Robin Hood and his men; the accused defended themselves on the grounds that the practice was a long-standing custom to raise money for churches, and they had not acted riotously but peaceably.[34]
It is from this association that Robin's romantic attachment to Maid Marian (or Marion) stems. The naming of Marian may have come from the French pastoral play of c. 1280, the Jeu de Robin et Marion, although this play is unrelated to the English legends.[35] Both Robin and Marian were certainly associated with May Day festivities in England (as was Friar Tuck), but these were originally two distinct types of performance — Alexander Barclay, writing in c.1500, refers to "some merry fytte of Maid Marian or else of Robin Hood" — but the characters were brought together.[36] Marian did not immediately gain the unquestioned role; in Robin Hood's Birth, Breeding, Valor and Marriage, his sweetheart is 'Clorinda the Queen of the Shepherdesses'.[37] Clorinda survives in some later stories as an alias of Marian..[38]
The first allusions to Robin Hood as stealing from the rich and giving to the poor appear in the 16th century. However, they still play a minor role in the legend; Robin still is prone to waylaying poor men, such as tinkers and beggars.[39]
In the 16th century, Robin Hood is given a specific historical setting. Up until this point there was little interest in exactly when Robin's adventures took place. The original ballads refer at various points to 'King Edward', without stipulating whether this is Edward I, Edward II, or Edward III.[40] Hood may thus have been active at any point between 1272 and 1377. However, ring the 16th century the stories become fixed to the 1190s, the period in which King Richard was absent from his throne, fighting in the crusades.[41] This date is first proposed by John Mair in his Historia Majoris Britanniæ (1512), and gains popular acceptance by the end of the century.
Giving Robin an aristocratic title and female love interest, and placing him in the historical context of the true king's absence, all represent moves to domesticate his legend and reconcile it to ruling powers. In this, his legend is similar to that of King Arthur, which morphed from a dangerous male-centered story to a more comfortable, chivalrous romance under the trobadours serving Eleanor of Aquitaine. From the 16th century on, the legend of Robin Hood is often used to promote the hereditary ruling class, heterosexual romance, and religious piety. The "criminal" element is retained to provide dramatic colour, rather than as a real challenge to convention.[42]
The seventeenth century introced the minstrel Alan-a-Dale. He first appeared in a seventeenth century broadside ballad, and unlike many of the characters thus associated, managed to adhere to the legend.[43] This is also the era in which the character of Robin became fixed as stealing from the rich to give to the poor.[44]
In the 18th century, the stories become even more conservative, and develop a slightly more farcical vein. From this period there are a number of ballads in which Robin is severely "drubbed" by a succession of professionals, including a potter, a tanner, a tinker and a ranger.[45] In fact, the only character who does not get the better of Hood is the luckless Sheriff. Yet even in these ballads Robin is more than a mere simpleton: on the contrary, he often acts with great shrewdness. The tinker, setting out to capture Robin, only manages to fight with him after he has been cheated out of his money and the arrest warrant he is carrying. In Robin Hood's Golden Prize, Robin disguises himself as a friar and cheats two priests out of their cash. Even when Robin is defeated, he usually tricks his foe into letting him sound his horn, summoning the Merry Men to his aid. When his enemies do not fall for this ruse, he persuades them to drink with him instead.
The continued popularity of the Robin Hood tales is attested by a number of literary references. In As You Like It, the exiled ke and his men "live like the old Robin Hood of England", while Ben Jonson proced the (incomplete) masque The Sad Shepheard, or a Tale of Robin Hood[46] as a satire on Puritanism. Somewhat later, the Romantic poet John Keats composed Robin Hood. To A Friend[47] and Alfred Lord Tennyson wrote a play The Foresters, or Robin Hood and Maid Marian,[48] which was presented with incidental music by Sir Arthur Sullivan in 1892. Later still, T. H. White featured Robin and his band in The Sword in the Stone — anachronistically, since the novel's chief theme is the childhood of King Arthur.[49]
The Victorian[50] era generated its own distinct versions of Robin Hood. The traditional tales were often adapted for children, most notably in Howard Pyle's Merry Adventures of Robin Hood. These versions firmly stamp Robin as a staunch philanthropist, a man who takes from the rich to give to the poor. Nevertheless, the adventures are still more local than national in scope: while Richard's participation in the Crusades is mentioned in passing, Robin takes no stand against Prince John, and plays no part in raising the ransom to free Richard. These developments are part of the 20th century Robin Hood myth. The idea of Robin Hood as a high-minded Saxon fighting Norman Lords also originates in the 19th century. The most notable contributions to this idea of Robin are Thierry's Histoire de la Conquête de l'Angleterre par les Normands (1825), and Sir Walter Scott's Ivanhoe (1819). In this last work in particular, the modern Robin Hoo